English Grammar Topics

English Grammar Topics

The Conjuction : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

The Conjuction

He has no desire for fame.
He is desirous of visiting Agra.
He was equal to the occasion.
He is to be blamed equally with his brother.
The coat fits me well except for the collar
I take exception to your remark.
The child is fond of sweets.
She has great fondness for children.
The drama is founded on an episode in the Ramayana.
It has, however, no foundation in fact.
He hindered me from going.
Child marriage is a great hindrance to progress.
He is quite infatuated with her.
His infatuation for that girl led him astray.
He has no liking for cards.
His dislike to her continued to increase.
He is neglectful of his dress.
I have often found him negligent in his work.
They say he is partial to his friends.
Children show a partiality for sweetmeats.
I have no prejudice against foreigners.
Such a step will be prejudicial to your interests.
He is prepared for anything.
Preparatory to taking extreme measures, his father once again warned him.
Pursuant to our conversation, I now send you a cheque for Rs. 500 as my contribution to the fund.
In pursuance of your instructions, we are writing today to the Collector.
I am of opinion that he is qualified for the post.
He is disqualified from practising as a pleader.
As a result of the injury received by him, he died of tetanus.
It is said that nothing resulted from the conference.
I have great respect for his learning.
He is respectful to his superiors, without being servile.
He seized upon the opportunity offered to him.
The seizure of his property was carried out under direct orders from the Rajah.
I assure you that I am sensible of your kindness.
His paralysed arm is insensible to feeling.
Subsequent to the meeting he wrote a letter to The Hindu.
Consequent upon this letter, the agents of the company filed a suit against him for defamation.
Trust in God and do what is right.
His distrust of his assistants is perhaps unfounded.
The country suffers for want of skilled labour.
He is wanting in a little common sense.

The Conjuction Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

387. కొన్ని సార్లు ఒక verb వెంట ఒక preposition ఉంటుంది. కొన్ని సందర్భములలో అదే verb వెంట ఏ preposition కూడా ఉండదు. ఈ రెండు సందర్భాలలో కూడా రెండు వాక్యముల అర్ధములలో తేడా ఉంది. అందుకే ఈ పరిణామం.

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I call that mean.
I called on him at his office.
I don’t catch your meaning.
A drowning man catches at a straw.
This closed the proceedings.
After a little higgling he closed with my offer.
He commenced life as a shop – assistant.
The proceedings commenced with a song.
Have you counted the cost? I count upon your advice and cooperation.
He deals fairly with his customers.
He deals in cotton and cloth.
The compounder dispenses medicines.
His master dispensed with his services.
He gained his object by persuasion.
He gained upon his rich uncle by his suave manners.
He grasped the meaning of the passage in no time.
Like a shrewd man of business he grasped at the opportunity.
I met him on my way to the station.
His appeals for funds met with a poor response.
He always prepares his speech.
Our soldiers prepared themselves for the offensive.
The pollee searched the house of the suspect.
We searched for the lost article.

388.కొన్ని పదములు వెంట infinitive ను వాడరాదు. వానికి వాని వెంట preposition మరియు అట్టి preposition వెంట gerund గాని verbal noun గాని ఉండవలయును.
He is addicted to gambling. [Not: to gamble.]
I assisted her in climbing the hill.
He is averse to playing cards.
I do not believe in pampering servants.
I am bent on attending the meeting.
He has hardly any chance of succeeding.
He is confident of securing the first prize.
The custom of tipping is prevalent everywhere.
He is desirous of visiting Japan.
He despaired of achieving his object.
There is some difficulty in perceiving his meaning.
Hereafter he is disqualified for holding any government post.
Remember the duty of helping the poor.
Sudha excels in dancing.
You can have no excuse for talking bluntly.
He is expert in inventing stories.
I am fond of reading novels.
The firm was fortunate in securing the government’s support.
What hindered you from visiting the Museum ?
He was disappointed in the hope of being rewarded.
He felt the humiliation of withdrawing his words.
We should be indefatigable in doing good.
I insisted on having my say.
He is intent on visiting Norway.
You were not justified in imputing motives to him.
He has a knack of doing it.
He appreciated the necessity of acting promptly.
He persisted in disobeying the orders.
He lacks the power of imparting, although he is a good mathematical scholar.
The practice of cramming is rightly regarded as an evil.
It was only a pretext for delaying the matter.
What is there to prevent him from leaving Chennai?
I had the privilege of knowing him intimately.
They were prohibited from entering the village.
I refrained from hurting his feelings.
You were right in suspecting him.
There is little satisfaction in sitting idle.
He has no scruple in begging.
He succeeded in convincing his critics.
He thought of eluding his pursuers.
I am tired of writing letters to him.

గమనిక (Note) : కొన్ని సందర్భములలో పై రెండు విధానములు కూడా అంగీకరింపబడును.
He was afraid of telling the truth.
He was afraid to tell the truth.
He at last got the opportunity of meeting him.
He at last got the opportunity to meet him.

389. అయినప్పటికీ, కొన్ని పదములు తప్పనిసరిగా infinitive ను తమ తర్వాత తీసుకుంటవి.
He advised us to desist from that attempt.
I decline to say anything further.
I expect to meet opposition.
It is hard to get access to him.
He hopes to win the first prize.
We are all inclined to judge of others as we find them.
He intends to compile a Marathi dictionary.

390. కొన్ని సందర్భములలో Prepositions అవసరం కాని చోట్ల గూడా, వానిని ప్రయోగించటం
జరుగుతుంది.
Where have you been to? [Here to is not required.]
My eldest son is a boy of about eighteen years old. [Here of is not required.]
After having finished my work I went home. [Here after is not required.]

391. Discuss, order  prepositions ఉండవు.
We discuss a topic (not discuss about a topic).
order tea (not order for tea).
stress a point (not stress on a point).
e transitive verbs. Job
We discuss a topic (not discuss about a topic), order tea (not order for tea), stress a point (not stress on a point)goo.

అధ్యాయము 40
392. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములను చదవండి :-
1. God made the country and man made the town.
2. Our hoard is little, but our hearts are great.
3. She must weep, or she will die.
4. Two and two make four.
1,2,3 వ వాక్యములలో Conjunctions ప్రతి example లో రెండు వాక్యములను కలిపినవి.
4 వ వాక్యములో Conjunction రెండు పదములను మాత్రమే కలిపింది.నిర్వచనం
(Def): ఏదైనా వాక్యములను గాని మరియు పదములను కలుపుటకు వాడు పదమును Conjunction అంటారు.

393. Conjunctions వాక్యములను కలిపి వానిని పటిష్టముగా చేయును.
‘Balu and Vithal are good bowlers’.
ఈ పద్ధతి క్లుప్తంగా చెప్పడం అవుతుంది.
‘Balu is a good bowler and Vithal is a good bowler’.
కావున, ‘The man is poor, but honest’. ఇది తేడాను చూపించి చెప్పడం అవుతూంది.
‘The man is poor, but he is honest.’
And అనబడే Conjunction పదములను మాత్రమే కలుపుతుంది.
Two and two make four.
Hari and Rama are brothers.
Hari and Rama came home together.
పై వాక్యములను రెండు విడివిడి వాక్యాలుగా రాయడం వీలుకాదు.

394. Relative Pronouns నుండి, Relative Adverbs నుండి మరియు Prepositions నుండి Conjunctions ను జాగ్రత్తగా గమనించవలయును. పై మూడు కూడా Conjunctions లాగా connecting పదములు కావున.
1. This is the house that Jack built. (Relative Pronoun)
2. This is the place where he was murdered. (Relatiye Adverb) .
3. Take this and give that. (Conjunction).
మొదటి వాక్యములో “that” అనబడు Relative Pronoun, noun అయిన house వైపు తన దృష్టిని సారించి, sentence లోని రెండు భావములను కలుపుచున్నది.
రెండవ వాక్యములో Relative Adverb అయిన where అను పదము was murdered అను verb పదమును అజమాయిషీ చేయుచున్నది మరియు sentence యొక్క రెండు భాగములను కలుపుచున్నది.
మూడవ వాక్యములో Conjunction అయిన and అను పదము నేరుగా వాక్యములోని రెండు భాగములను కలుపుచున్నది. వేరే ఇంకో పనిని చెయ్యడం లేదు. ఈ క్రింది విషయమును కూడా
గమనించదగును.
Pani Relative Pronouns మరియు Relative Adverbs కూడా రెండు భాగములను కలుపుటయేగాక, ఇంకా ఇతరమైన పనిని గూడా చేయును.
Conjunctions రెండు భాగములను కలుపుటయే తప్ప ఇంకే పనిని చేయవు.
Preposition రెండు భాగములను కలుపుటయే గాక ఇంకా ఇతరమైన కొన్ని పనులను కూడా చేస్తుంది. ఒక noun ను గాని, Pronoun ను గాని govern (అజమాయిషీ) చేస్తుంది కూడా. ఈ విధంగా
G&He sat beside Rama. He stood behind me.

395. ఒకే class కు చెందిన Conjunctions జంటగా ఉపయోగింపబడతవి.
Either -or.                                     Either take it or leave it.
Neither -nor.                                 It is neither useful nor ornamental.
Both – and                                    We both love and honour him.
Though-yet. (rare in current English)  Though the is suffering much pain, yet he does not complain.
Whether-or.                                  I do not care whether you go or stay.
Not only-but also.                        Not only is he foolish, but also obstinate.

పై జంట Conjunction పదములను Correlative Conjunctions అంటారు. Correlative అనగా
పరస్పర సంబంధము గల అని అర్ధం.

396. Conjunctions Correlative Conjunctions 83 e Correlative కలపవలసిన పదమునకు ముందు వెంటనే ఉంచవలయును.
(Not)
He visited not only Agra, but also Delhi.
He not only visited Agra, but also Delhi.
(ఇచ్చట మొదటి వాక్యములో “not only” అనునది Agra ముందునకు, “but also” అనునది Delhi కి ముందునను ఉన్నవి. గమనించండి.

397. మనము అనేక compound expressions ను (సంయుక్త పదములు) Conjunctions గా వాడతాము. వీనిని Compound
Conjunctions అని అంటాము.
In order that.
On condition that. Even if.
So that.
Provided that. As though.
In as much as.
As well as.
As soon as. As if.
The notice was published in order that all might know the facts.
I will forgive you on condition that you do not repeat the offence. Such an act would not be kind even if it were just.
He saved some bread so that he should not go hungry on the morrow. You can borrow the book provided that you return it soon.
He walks as though he is slightly lame.
I must refuse your request, in as much as I believe it unreasonable. Rama as well as Govind was present there.
He took off his coat as soon as he entered the house.
He looks as if he were weary.

Classes Of Conjuctions

398. Conjunctions do 5. Co-ordinating Conjunctions (3380) మరియు Subordinating Conjunctions (పెద్ద చిన్న తేడా చూపునవి). ఈ వాక్యాన్ని చూడండి.
Birds fly and fish swim.
పై వాక్యము రెండు స్వతంత్రమైన statements ను కలిగియున్నది. ఆ statements ఒకే హోదా (rank) ను మరియు ఒకే ప్రాముఖ్యమును కలిగి యున్నవి. కావున వానిని కలిపే Conjunction ను Co- Pordinating Conjunctions అంటాము.
నిర్వచనం (Def): సమాన హోదా కలిగియున్న సమానమైన clauses ను కలిపిన దానిని Co-ordinating Conjunction అని అంటారు.

399. Co-ordinating Conjunctions
And, but, for, or, nor, also, either…….. or, neither…… nor.

400. Co-ordinating Conjunctions Jeke:
(1) Cumulative conjunctions (ఒక దానికొకటి కలుపుచూ ఒక మొత్తాన్ని తయారు చేయునవి) కేవలం ఒక word ను ఇంకొక word తో కలుపువాటిని conjunction అంటాము.
We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone.
(2) Adversative Conjunctions: 3835g adversative conjunctions అంటాము.
He is slow, but he is sure.
I was annoyed, still I kept quiet.
I would come; only that I am engaged.
He was all right; only he was fatigued.
(3) ఏదైనా రెండిటి మధ్య choice గురించి మాట్లాడునపుడు వాడు పదములను Disjunctive or Alternative conjunctions అంటాము.
She must weep, or she will die.
Either he is mad, or he feigns madness.
Neither a borrower, nor a lender be,
They toil not, neither do they spin,
Walk quickly, else you will not overtake him.
(4) Illative conjunctions: (OA)
Eco
bocche
dump dno ton by
ఒక statement లోని భావము మరియొక statement లో స్ఫురించినపుడు అట్టి conjunctions ను
Illative అని అంటాము.
Something certainly fell in: for I heard a splash.
All precautions must have been neglected, for the plague spread rapidly.

401. Or, nor తప్ప ఏ విధమైన Co-ordinating Conjunctions ను అయినను omit (తీసివేయుట) చేయవచ్చును. దాని స్థానంలో comma ను గాని, semi-colon ను గాని లేక colon ను గా ఈ క్రింది విధముగా ఉంచవచ్చును.
Rama went out to play; Hari stayed in to work.

402. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యమును చదవండి :
I read the paper because it interests me.
పై వాక్యములో రెండు statements లేక రెండు clauses ఉన్నవి. ఆ రెండు clauses లో రెండు statement ఉన్నవి. అందులో ‘because it interests me’ అను statement మిగిలి ఉన్న మొదటి statement పై ఆధారపడి ఉన్నది. కావున రెండవ భాగమైన subordinate clause ను పరిచయం చేస్తున్న because Conjunction Subordinating Conjunction o
నిర్వచనం (Def): Subordinating Conjunction రెండు clauses ను కలుపును. అందులో ఒకటి ఇంకొక దానిపై ఆధారపడి ఉంటుంది. ఈ విధంగా అది ఒక సంపూర్ణమైన భావాన్ని ఇస్తుంది.

403.
Subordinating Conjunctions:-
After, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when, where, while.
After the shower was over the sun shone out again.
A book’s a book, although, there is nothing in it.
As he was not there, I spoke to his brother,
He ran away because he was afraid.
Answer the first question before you proceed further.
Take heed ere it be too late.
Except ye repent, you shall all likewise perish.
You will pass if you work hard.
Sentinels were posted lest the camp should be taken by surprise.
Since you say so, I must believe it.
Tell them that I will come.
He finished first though he began late.
Will you wait till I return?
He will not pay unless he is compelled.
I waited for my friend until he came.
When I was younger, I thought so.
I do not know whence he comes.
He found his watch where he had left it.
I do not understand how it all happened. Make hay while the sun shines.
I shall go whither fancy leads me.
I know not why he left us.

404. Than అను పదము కూడా Subordinating Conjunction clause అయి ఉన్నది :-
He is taller than I (am tall).
I like you better than he (likes you).
I like you better than (I like) him.
Hari is more stupid than Dhondu (is stupid).
His bark is worse than his bite (is bad).

405. Subordinating Conjunctions ని వాని వాని అర్ధములను బట్టి లేక భావములను బట్టి వివిధ తరగతులుగా విభజించవచ్చును. ఈ విధంగా :-
(1) కాలము (Time)
I would die before I lied.
No nation can be perfectly well governed till it is competent to goven itself.
Many things have happened since I saw you.
I returned home after he had gone.
Ere he blew three notes, there was a rustling.
(2) 5min
? (Cause or Reason)
My strength is as the strength of ten, because my heart is pure.
Since you wish it, it shall be done.
As he was not there, I spoke to his brother.
He may enter, as he is a friend.
(3)ఉద్దేశము ఏమిటి? (Purpose)
We eat so that we may live. asse
He held my hand lest I should fall.
(4) 5055
? (Result or Consequence)
He was so tired that he could scarcely stand.
(5) పరిస్థితి ఎలా ఉంది? (Condition)
Rama will go if Hari goes.
Grievances cannot be redressed unless they are known.
(6) మినహాయింపు ఏమైనా ఉన్నదా? (Concession)
I will not see him, though he comes.
Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him.
A book’s a book, although there’s nothing in it.
(7) ఇతరులతో పోల్చిచూడవచ్చా? (Comparison)
He is stronger than Rustum [is].

406. కొన్ని పదములను Conjunctions గాను Prepositions గాను కూడా వాడవచ్చును. (రూల్ 375 చూడండి
Preposition
Stay till Monday.
I have not met him since Monday.
He died for his country.
The dog ran after the cat.
Everybody but Govind was present.
He stood before the painting.
Conjunction
We shall stay here till you return.
We shall go since you desire it.
I must stay here, for such is my duty.
We came after they had left.
He tried, but did not succeed. nifer Look before you leap.

అభ్యాసము 94
Point out the Conjunctions in the following sentences, and state whether they are Co
ordmaungorSubordmaung:
1. You will not succeed unless you work harder.
2. We arrived after you had gone.
3. I waited till the train arrived.
4. Broad and milk is wholesome food.
5. You will get the prize if you deserve it.
6. When you are called, you must come in at once.
7. Do not go before I come.
8. I cannot give you any money, for I have none.
9. Since you say so, I must believe it.
10. He fled lest he should be killed.
11. I shall be vexed if you do that.
12. We got into the port before the storm came on.
13. He was sorry after he had done it.
14. I did not come because you did not call me.
15. He is richer than I am.
16. My grandfather died before I was born.
17. I will stay until you return.
18. Catch me if you can.
19. Tom runs fasterti-Jan Harry.
20. Is that story true or false?
21. You will be late unless you hurry.
22. He asked whether he might have a holiday.
23. Give me to drink, else I shall die of thirst.
24. If I feel any doubt, I ask.
25. He deserved to succeed, for he worked hard.
26. He will be sure to come if you invite him.
27. We can travel by land or water.
28. The earth is larger than the moon.
29. Either you are mistaken, or I am.
30. I shall go, whether you come or not.
31. Unless you tell me the truth, I shall punish you.
32. I hear that your brother is in London.
33. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.

అభ్యాసము 95
Use these Conjunctions in complex sentences:
(1) But, either………..or, neither……
nor, whether…….
or.
(2) That, before, how, as, unless, until, though, when, while, where, if, than.

అభ్యాసము 96

Distinguish as Adverb, Preposition, or Conjunction, each of the italicized words in the
following sentences:
1. He came before me.
2. He came two hours before.
3. He came before I left.
4. Have you ever seen him since?
5. I have not seen him since Monday.
6. I have not seen him since he was a child.
7. Man wants but little here below.
8. He yearns for nothing but money.
9. We shall go, but you will remain.
10. He arrived after the meeting was adjourned.
11. He arrived after the meeting.
12. He arrived soon after.

అధ్యాయము 41

Some Conjunctions And Their Uses

407. Since అను పదమును Conjunction గా వాడితే వచ్చు భావములు :
(1) ఇచ్చట From మరియు after the time అనే భావములు వచ్చును.
I have been in such a pickle since I saw you last.
Many things have happened since I left school.
I have never seen him since that unfortunate event happened.
గమనిక (Note: Conjunction గా వాడబడినప్పుడు Since అను పదము present perfect tense
లో verb తరువాత, Simple past tense లో verb ముందు వాడబడును.
(2) Seeing that మరియు in as much as అను అర్ధములు ఇచ్చట వచ్చును.
Since you wish it, it shall be done.
Since you will not work, you shall not eat.
Since that is the case. I shall excuse you.

408. Or అను పదమును ఇంకొక దానికి బదులుగా వాడతాము.
(1) ఒక choice చెప్పుటకు
Your purse or your life.
You must work or starve.
You may take this book or that one.
గమనిక (Note) జతలు జతలుగా అనేక alternatives ఒక వాక్యములో ఉండవచ్చును. అప్పుడు అచ్చట రెండు alternative group ల మధ్య alternative భావము Or ను ప్రయోగించుట ద్వారా వస్తుంది. He may study law or medicine or engineering, or he may enter into trade.
2) ఇంకొక పేరును గాని ఇంకొక ప్రతి పదమును గాని (synonym) సూచించుటకు The violin or fiddle has become the leading instrument of the modern orchestra.
(3) Otherwise (అలా కాక పోయినట్లయితే) అను భావమును ఇచ్చుటకు
We must hasten or night will overtake us.
(4) And అనే అర్థమునకు దాదాపు దగ్గరగా నున్న భావములను alternative గా చూపుటకు
The troops were not wanting in strength or courage, but they were badly fed.

409. If అను పదమును ఈ క్రింది పరిస్థితులలో వాడతాము.
(1) ఒక condition (అవస్థ – దశ) ను తెలియజేయుటకు
If he is there, I shall see him.
If that is so, I am content.
(2) ఒక పరిస్థితిని ఒప్పుకొను (Admitting) సందర్భములో
If I am blunt, I am at least honest.
If I am poor, yet I am honest.
(3) అవునా కాదా అను సందర్భములో (Whether)
I asked him if he would help me.
I wonder if he will come.
(4) ఎప్పుడయినా (Whenever) అను సందర్భములో
If I feel any doubt I inquire.
If is also used to express wish or surprise: as,
If I only knew!

410. That అను పదము తన Conjunction (కలుపునట్టి) రూపములో తన స్వభావసిద్ధమైన Demonstrative Pronoun (వేలెత్తి చూపించు సర్వనామము) రూపమును చాలా వరకు నిలబెట్టుకుంటుంది. కావున ‘I am told that you are miserable’ అను వాక్యమును ‘You are miserable: I am told that గా భావించుకొనవచ్చును. ఎలా రాసినా కూడా వేలెత్తి చూపించే దాని తత్వము తగ్గదు అని ఇచ్చట అర్ధం కావున that ను ఈ క్రింది విధంగా కూడా వాడతాము:
(1) Reason ను గాని Cause (కారణము) ను గాని తెలియజేయుటకు. ఆ సందర్భములో అది because, for that, in that అనే భావములను ఇస్తుంది.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
He was annoyed that he was contradicted.
(2) ఒక ఉద్ధేశము (purpose) ను తెలియజేయు సందర్భములో (in order that అను భావమును కలుపుకొనుటకు) that ను వాడవచ్చును.
We sow that we may reap..
He kept quiet that the dispute might cease.
గమనిక (Note): ఉద్ధేశ్యము (purpose)ను తెలియజేయడానికి దానిని ఇప్పుడు సాధారణంగా వాడుటలేదు.
(3) Consequence (పరిణామము లేక ఫలితము), Result (ఫలితము), Effect (ప్రభావము) లను తెలియజేయుటకు
I am so tired that I cannot go on.
He bled so profusely that he died,
He was so tired that he could scarcely stand.

411: Conjunction భావముతో Than అను పదము comparative degree లోనున్న (పోల్చి చెప్పు భావము) adjectives మరియు adverbs ను follow అవుతుంది.
Wisdom is better than rubies (are).
I see you oftener than (I see) him.
I am better acquainted with the country than you are.
I would rather suffer than that you should want.

412. Lest అను పదమును Subordinating Conjunction గా వాడతాము. అట్టి సందర్భములో అది negative భావాన్ని ఇస్తుంది. ‘in order that …….. not’ అను phrase కు సమానమై ఉంటుంది. ‘for fear that’ అను భావమునకు కూడా సమానమై ఉంటుంది. Lest అను పదమునకు అట్లగునేమో అనే భావము వస్తుంది.
Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty.
Do not be idle, lest you come to want.
He fled lest he should be killed.
I was alarmed lest we should be wrecked.
(గమనిక (Note: Modern English లో Lest అను పదమును అంతగా వాడుట లేదు)
గమనిక (Note: Modern English లో Lest తరువాత should అను పదమును వాడుచున్నారు. భయమును సూచించు కొన్ని సందర్భములలో Lest కు బదులుగా that ను వాడేవారు.
I feared lest I might anger thee.

413. While ఈ క్రింది భావములకు కూడా వాడబడుచున్నది :
While is used as:
(1) During the time that, (అనగా ఆ సమయములో) as long as (ఎంత కాలము జరిగితే అంతవరకు అనుభావములతో ఈ పద జాలములను ఉపయోగిస్తాము.
While he was sleeping, an enemy sowed tares.
While there is life there is hope.
(2) At the same time that (అదే సమయములో
The girls sang while the boys played.
While he found fault, he also praised.
(3) Whereas (కాబట్టి, అలా కాకుండా)
While I have no money to spend, you have nothing to spend on.
While this is true of some, it is not true of all.

414. Conjunction భావములో Only అను పదమునకు except that (అది తప్ప), but (కాని, లేక were it not అను అర్ధములు వచ్చునట్లు వాడుచున్నారు.
A very pretty woman, only she squints a little. (కాని ఆమెకు మెల్లకన్ను)
The day is pleasant, only rather cold.
He does well, only that he is nervous at the start.
I would go with you, only I have no money. (నీతో వస్తాను, కాని నా దగ్గర డబ్బులేదే !)

415. Except . ఒకప్పుడు Except కు Conjunction గా మంచి వాడుక ఉండేది.
Except (= unless) ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.
Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God.
Modern English లో ఈ పదమునకు బదులుగా unless అను పదమును వాడుచున్నాము.

416. Without. “without”  వచ్చునట్లుగా వాడడం ఇప్పుడు bad English అయినది.
I shall not go without you do.

417. Because, for, since because o causal mera.
for వాడకం బలహీనమయ్యింది. since పదము రెంటికి మధ్యగా ఉంటుంది.

అధ్యాయము 42
418. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములను పరిశీలించండి :-

The Interjection

Hello! What are you doing there?
Alas! He is dead.
Hurrah! We have won the game.
Ah! Have they gone?
Oh! I got such a fright.
Hush! Don’t make a noise.
Hello! Alas! Hurrah! Ah!
అవి ప్రతిబింబించును. వీనికి grammar లో ప్రాముఖ్యము లేదు. Interjections ఈ క్రింది భావములను చూపించును.
నిర్వచనం (Def): ఆకస్మిత భావోద్వేగమును వెలిబుచ్చుటకు వాడు పదములను Interjections అని అంటారు.
(1) Joy; as, Hurrah! huzza!
(2) Grief; as, alas!
(3) Surprise; as, ha! what!
(4) Approval; as, bravo!

419. Sudden feelings చూపడానికి వేరే group of words కూడా ఉన్నవి.
Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious!

అధ్యాయము 43

The Same Word Used As Different Parts Of Speech

420. ఈ క్రింది పదములు వాని వాని వాక్యములలో అవి ఇచ్చు భావములను బట్టి వివిధ parts of speech గా గుర్తింపబడినవి. (భాషాభాగములుగా

ABOUT:Adverb.They wandered about in sheepskins and goatskins.
Preposition.There is something pleasing about him.
ABOVE:Adverb.The heavens are above.
Preposition.The moral law is above the civil.
Adjective.Analyse the above sentence.
NounOur blessings come from above.
AFTER:Adverb.They arrived soon after.
Preposition.He takes after his fiilther.
Adjective.After ages ‘shall sing his glory.
Conjunction.We went away after they had left
ALL:Adjective.All men are mortal. It was ailprofit and no loss
Adverb. He was all alone when I saw him.
Pronoun.All spoke in his favour.
NounHe lost his all in speculation.
AnyAdjective.Are there any witnesses present ?
Pronoun.Does any of you know anything about it?
Adverb.Is that any better ?
AS :Adverb.We walked as fast as we could.
 Conjunction. As he was poor I helped him.
 Relat. Pron.She likes the same colour as I do.
BEFORE :Adverb.I have seen you before.
Preposition.He came before the appointed time.
Conjunction. He went away before I came.
BETTER:Adjective.I think yours is a better plan.
Adverb.I know better.
Noun.Give place to your betters.
Verb.The boxes with which he provided me bettered the sample Froude.
BOTH :Adjective.You cannot have it both ways.
Pronoun.Both of them are dead.
Conjunction.Both the cashier and the accountant are Hindus.
BUT:Adverb.It is but (= only) right to admit our faults.
Preposition.None but (= except) the brave deserves the fair.
Conjunction.We tried hard, but did not succeed.
Relat. Pronoun.There is no one but likes him (= who does not like him.)
DOWN :Prepostion.Down went the “Royal George”.
Adjective.The fire engine came rushing down the hill.
Noun. The porter was killed by the down train.
Verb.He has seen the ups and downs of life. Down with the tyrant!
EITHER :AdjectiveEither bat is good enough.
Pronoun.Ask either of them.
Conjunction.He must either work or starve.
ELSE:Adjective.I have something else for you.
Adverb.Shall we look anywhere else ?
Conjunction.Make haste, else you will miss the train.
ENOUGH:Adjective.There is time enough and to spare
Adverb.You know well enough what I mean.
Noun. I have had enough of this.
EVEN :Adjective.The chances are even.
Verb.Let us even the ground.
Adverb.Does he even suspect the danger ?
EXCEPT:Verb.If we except Hari, all are to be blamed.
PrepositionAll the brethren were in Egypt except Benjamin.
Conjunction.I will not let thee go except (=unless) thou bless me
FOR:Preposition.I can shift for for myself.
Conjunction.Give thanks unto the Lord; for He is good.
LESS:Adjective.You are paying less attention to your studies than you used to do.
Adverb.The population of India is less than that of China.
Noun.He wants Rs. 500 for that watch. He won’t be satisfied with less.
LIKE:AdjectiveThey are men of like build and stature.
Pronoun.Do not talk like that.
Adverb.Like as a father pitieth his own children.
Noun.We shall not see his like again.
Verb.Children like sweets.
LITTLE:AdjectiveThere is little danger in going there.
Noun. Man wants but little, here below.
Verb.He eats very little.
MORE:AdjectiveWe want more men like him.
Pronoun.More of us die in bed than out of it.
Verb. You should talk less and work more.
MUCH:AdjectiveThere is much sense in what he says. Much of it is true.
Pronoun.He boasts too much.
Adverb.Draw near and listen.
NEAR:prepositionHis house is near the temple.
Adverb.He is a near relation.
Verb.The time nears.
NEEDS:Noun.My needs are few.
Verb.It needs to be done with care.
Adverb. He needs must come.
NEITHER :Conjunction.Give me neither poverty nor riches.
Adjective.Neither accusation is true.
Pronoun.It is difficult to negotiate where neither will trust.
NEXT:Adjective.I shall see you next Monday.
Adverb.What next?
prepositionHe was sitting next to her.
Noun.I shall tell you more about it in my next.
NO:Adjective.It is no joke.
Adverb.He is no more.
Noun.I will not take a no.
ONCE:Adverb.I was young once.
Conjunction.Once he hesitates we have him.
Noun.Please help me for once.
ONE :AdjectiveOne day I met him in the street.
Pronoun.The little ones cried for joy.
Noun.One would think he was mad.
ONLY :Adjective.It was his only chance.
Adverb.He was only foolish.
Conjunction.Take what I have, only (= but) let me go.
OVER:Adverb.Read it over carefully.
Noun.In one over he took three wickets.
prepositionAt thirty a change came over him.
RIGHT:Verb. You should talk less and work more.
AdjectiveHe is the right man for the position.
Noun.I ask it as a right.
Adverb.Serves him right! He stood right in my way.
ROUND :AdjectiveA square peg in a round hole.
Noun.The evening was a round of pleasures.
Adverb.He came round to their belief.
prepositionThe earth revolves round the sun.
Verb.We shall round the cape in safety.
SINCE :prepositionSince that day I have not seen him.
Conjunction.Since there’s no help, come, let us kiss and part.
Adverb.I have not seen him since.
SO:Adverb.I am sorry
Conjunction.He was poor, so they helped him.
SOME :AdjectiveWe must find some way out of it.
Pronoun.Some say one thing and others another.
Adverb.Some thirty chiefs were present.
STILL:Verb.With his name the mothers still their babes.
AdjectiveSt/’// waters run deep.
Noun.Her sobs could be heard in the still of night.
Adverb.He is still in business.
SUCH :AdjectiveDon’t be in such a hurry.
Pronoun.Such was not mv intention.
THAT :Demonst. Adjective.What is that noise?
Demonst. Pronoun.  That is what I
  Adverb. I have done that much only.
Relative Pronoun  The evil that men do lives after them.
Conjunction. He lives so that he may eat.
THE :Def. Article.The cat loves comfort.
Adverb.The wiser he is, the better.
TILL:Preposition.Never put off till tomorrow what you can do to-day.
Conjunction. Do not start till I give the word.
UP :Adverb.Prices are up.
prepositionLet us go up the hill.
AdjectiveThe next up train will leave here at 12.30.
Noun. They had their ups and downs of fortune
WELL:Noun.Let well alone.
Adverb.I hope you are now well.
Adverb.Well begun is half done.
interjuctionWell, who would have thought it ?
WHAT :Inter. Adjective.What evidence have you got?
Interjection.What! you don’t mean to say so ?
 Inter. Pronoun.What does he want?
Relative Pronoun.Give me what you can. What happened then,I do not know.
 Adverb.What by fire and what by sword, the whole country was laid waste.
WHILE:Noun.Sit down and rest a while.
Verb.They while away their evenings with books and games.
Conjunction.While a great poet, he is a greater novelist.
WHY:Interro. Adverb.Why did you do it?
 Relative Adverb.I know the reason why he did it.
 Interjection.Why, it is surely Nanak !
Noun.This is not the time to go into the why and the wherefore of it.
YET:Adverb.There is more evidence yet\o be offered.
Conjunction.He is willing, yet unable.

 

 

 

Auxiliaries And Models : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Auxiliaries And Models

288. Be అను ధాతువు నుండి పుట్టిన am, is, was, do మొదలగు పదములను మామూలు verbs తో కలిపి tenses, passive forms, questions మరియు negatives భావములను సృష్టించునపుడు వానిని auxiliary verbs (సహాయక క్రియలు) అంటారు.

289. can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and ought verbs modal verb modals అని పిలుస్తారు. వీనిని ordinary verbs ముందు వాడతారు. అప్పుడు అవి permission, possibility, certainty (తప్పని సరి పరిస్థితి) మరియు necessity (అవసరము) అను భావములను తెలియజేయును. Need మరియు dare అను పదములను కూడా modal verbs గా
వాడవచ్చును.
Modals ను చాలా సందర్భాలలో auxiliaries అనగా సహాయక క్రియల జాబితాలో చేర్చుతారు. కొన్ని grammer పుస్తకాలలో వానిని “Modal Auxiliaries” అని అంటారు.

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290. Modals o can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must 50 ought పదములు Defective Verbs అనబడును. ఎందుకనగా వానిలో భావసంబంధమైన కొన్ని parts లోపించి యుండుట వలన. They have no – s in the third person singular, వానికి infinitve లేదు. -ing form .

Auxiliaries And Models Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

BE

291. Auxiliary verb (సహాయక క్రియ or helping verb) అయిన be ని ఈ క్రింది విధముగా వాడవచ్చును.
(1) continuous tenses (action 3 on 3)
ఈ క్రింద చూపబడిన విధముగా form చేయునప్పుడు
He is working. I was writing.
(2) Passive voice verb form :
The gate was opened.
Be ని infinitive తో కలిపినపుడు
1)plan, arrangement és agreement o
I am to see him tomorrow.
We are to be married next month.
2) ఒక ఆజ్ఞను యిచ్చునపుడు
You are to write your name at the top of each sheet of paper.
Mother says you are to go to market at once.

291. కార్యాచరణలో పెట్టని ఒక arrangement లేక plan నూ సూచించడానికి “Be” ను past tense లో perfect infinitive తో వాడతారు.
They were to have been married last month but had to postpone the marriage until June.

Have

293. Perfect tense ను form చెయ్యడానికి auxiliary have ను వాడతారు.
He has worked. He has been working.

294. Obligation అనగా ఒక బాధ్యతకు కట్టుబడిన సందర్భములో infinitive తో కలిపి “Have to” ను వాడతాము.
I have to be there by five o’clock.
He has to move the furniture himself.

295. ఒక వ్యక్తి యొక్క బాద్యతను past tense భావములో తెలియజేయుటకు “had to” ను వాడతాము.
I had to be there by five o’clock.
He had to move the furniture himself.

296. వ్యతిరేక పరిస్థితిలోను (negatives), ప్రశ్నలు అడుగు సందర్భములోను “have to” మరియు
“had to” అను పదములను do, does, did అను పదములతో కలిపి వాడతాము. ఈ విధంగా :-
They have to go.
He has to go.
He had to go.
They don’t have to go. Do they have to go? He doesn’t have to go. Does he have to go? He didn’t have to go. Did he have to go?

DO

297. Auxiliary verb (helping verb) అయిన do అను పదమును ఈ విధముగా వాడతాము. (1) మామూలు verbs తో form అయిన simple present tense మరియు simple past tense లలోని negative అర్ధాలకు మరియు interrogative అర్థాలకు (వ్యతిరేక మరియు ప్రశ్నార్ధక అర్ధాలు) do ని వాడతాము.
He doesn’t work. He didn’t work. Does he work?
Did he work ?.
(2) అంతకు ముందు ప్రయోగించిన ordinary verb ను మరల చెప్పవలసిన అవసరం లేనప్పుడు
Do you know him ? Yes, I do..
She sings well. Yes, she does.
You met him, didn’t you? He eats fish and so do you.

298. ఒక స్టేట్మెంటు విషయంలో “అవును” అని అంగీకరించలసినపుడు, అట్టి భావమును వెలిబుచ్చుటకు, Do ను వాడతాము.
You do look pale.
I told him not to go, but he did go.

299. గత్యంతర పరిస్థితిలో imperative అను పదమును కలిపితే, ఆ గత్యంతర పరిస్థితిని ఒక విన్నపము ద్వారా, ఒక ఆహ్వానము ద్వారా మరియు మెల్లగా ఒప్పించుతూ తెలియజేసినట్లువుతుంది.
Do be quiet,
Oh, do come ! It’s going to be such fun.
In such cases do is strongly stressed.

Can, Could, May, Might

300. Can సహజముగా, శక్తి సామార్థ్యాన్ని అనగా capacity ని తెలియజేస్తుంది. దానిని సాధారణంగా అనుమతి యిచ్చుటకు ఉపయోగించరాదు. అనుమతి ఇవ్వడానికి may గాని might గాని వాడాలి.
I can swim across the river.
He can work this sum.
Can you lift this box?

301. కొన్ని ప్రత్యేక సందర్భాలలో Can మరియు may అను auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) ను permission (అనుమతిని) తెలియజేయడానికి వాడతాము. May అను auxiliary verb ని వాడితే, అధికార పూర్వకముగా ఆ అనుమతిని యిచ్చినట్లు అర్ధం వస్తుంది. Can కంటే may కు అధికార హోదా ఎక్కువ.
May is rather formal. You can/may go now.
Can/May I borrow your umbrella?

302. Affirmative sentences లో (అవును అని చెప్పునవి) అవకాశం ఉన్నది అని చెప్పు సందర్భములో May అను పదము అధికారరీత్యా ఆ భావమును వెలిబుచ్చును. Can ను interrogative మరియు negative sentences లో వాడతాము.
It may rain tomorrow.
He may be at home.
Can this be true ?
It cannot be true.
‘It cannotbe true’ ను
‘It may not be true’ తో పోల్చి చూడండి. Cannot అసాధ్యాన్ని తెలియజేస్తుంది. may not అను పదము అది జరిగి (సంభవించి) ఉండకపోవచ్చు అనే అర్ధాన్ని ఇస్తుంది.

303. సాంప్రదాయబద్ధమైన English లో may అను పదము ఒక అభిలాషను తెలియజేస్తుంది. ఈ విధంగా
May you live happily and long!
May success attend you !

304. Could and might అను పదములను వాని present tense భావములో can and may గా వాడతారు.
I could swim across the river when I was young. (Ability)
He said I might / could go. (Permission)
I thought he might be at home. (Possibility)
She wondered whether it could be true. (Possibility)

305. పైన ఉదహరించిన మొదటి వాక్యములో Could అను పదము నేర్పరితనమును (ability) తెలియజేస్తుంది కాని ఆ పనిని ఎలా చేసిందీ చెప్పదు.
ability ని action తో కలిపి చెప్పాలంటే, అనగా ఎంత బాగా ఇది అప్పుడు జరిగింది అని చెప్పాలంటే was able to swim) or were able to swim) అని చెప్పాలి.
When the boat was upset, we were able to (or managed to) swim to the bank, (not: we could swim to the bank)
Negative statements లో, అనగా ప్రారంభములోనే నాస్తిక శబ్ధము చూపిన లేక ప్రమాదమును సూచించిన వాక్యములలో could ను గాని, was able to ని గాని were able to ని గాని వాడవలయును.

306. వర్తమాన కాలగమనమును చూపించు వాక్యములలో (present-time contexts) could, man and may ల భావాలను తగ్గించినట్లవుతుంది.
I could attend the party. (Less positive and more hesitant than ‘I can attend the party’.)
Might/ Could I borrow your bicycle? (A diffident way of saying ‘May / Can I……)
It might rain tomorrow. (Less positive than ‘it may rain …..)
Could you pass me the salt ? (Polite request)

307. పరిమితమైన అసంతుప్తిని కాని, కొంత మందలింపు భావాన్ని కాని తెలియజేయుటకు Might ను వాడతారు.
You might pay a little more attention to your appearance.

308. Perfect Tense infinitive కు can could, may మరియు might లను వాడటం గమనించండి. He is not there. Where can he have gone? (= Where is it possible that he has gone? – May expresses annoyance.)
You could have accepted the offer. (= Why didn’t “you accept the offer?)
Fatima may /might have gone with Saroja. (= Possibly Fatima has gone/ went with Saroja.)
Why did you drive so carelessly? You might have run into the lamp-post. (= It is fortunate that yoy didn’t run into the lamp-post.)

Shall, Should, Will, Would

309. Simple future tense భావాన్ని ఇవ్వడానికి First person pronoun (నేను, మేము మొదలగునవి) లో “shall” ను మరియు First, second and third persons లో “will” ను వాడతాము కాని ఈ రోజులలో | shall, We shall కన్నా | will మరియు we will పదములనే ఎక్కువగా వాడుచున్నారు.
I shall / will be twenty-five next birthday.
We will need the money on 15th.
When shall we see you again? Tomorrow will be Sunday.
You will see that I am right.
Modern English లో అన్నీ persons (l, we, and you, He, she, it, they etc.) కు will వాడకం పెరిగింది.

310. ఒక ఆదేశమును (command) ఒక వాగ్దానమును లేక ఒక బెదిరింపును సూచించడానికి second మరియు third persons లో (నీవు, వాడు etc.) “shall” ను కొన్ని సార్లు వాడతారు.
He shall not enter my house again.
You shall have a holiday tomorrow.
You shall be punished for this.
(Command) (Promise)
(Threat)
Modern English లో shall ను ఈ విధంగా వాడడం చాలా వరకు తగ్గిపోయింది అని గమనించండి.

311. ఎవరికైతే ప్రశ్నలు వేస్తామో, వారి మనోభావమును తెలుసుకోవడానికి shall I shall we అనే పదాలను ప్రశ్నలో జోడిస్తాయి.
Shall I open the door ? (i.e.. Do you want me to open it ?)
Which pen shall I buy ? (i.e.. What is your advice ?)
Where shall we go ? (What is your suggestion ?)

312. Will అను సహాయక క్రియా పదమును ఈ క్రింది విధంగా ఉపయోగిస్తారు.
1) Volition కొరకు (ఇచ్ఛ కొరకు)
I will (wam willing to) carry your books.
I will (promise to) try to do better next time.
I will (-am determined to) succeed or die in the attempt.
పై మూడవ example లో Will ఆ వ్యక్తి యొక్క ఇచ్ఛలోనున్న బలాన్ని చూపుతుంది.
2) వ్యక్తికి సహజంగా నున్న అలవాటును చూపుటకు.
He will talk about nothing but films.
She will sit for hours listening to the wireless.
3) నొక్కి వక్కాణించి చెప్పు సందర్భములో.
This will be the book you want, I suppose.
That will be the poptman, I think.

313. ఒక ఆహ్వానమును అందించునపుడు మరియు ఒక విన్నపనును చేయునపుడున్నూ Will ను
వాడతాము.
Will you have tea?
Will you lend me your scooter?
314. Shall మరియు Will అను పదములకు Should మరియు would పదములను భూతకాల
past tense) సందర్భములలో వాడెదరు.
I expected that I should (more often: would) get a first class.
He said he would be twenty-five next birthday.
She said she would carry my books.
She would sit for hours listening to the wireless. (Past habit)

315. ఒక వ్యక్తి చేయవలసిన duty ని గాని, అతని బాధ్యతను గురించి గాని చెప్పవలసి వచ్చినపుడు “Should” అను auxiliary verb అన్ని persons (first, second, third persons) కు వర్తిస్తుంది.
We should obey the laws.
You should keep your promise.
Children should obey their parents.

316. ఒక అవస్థను condition గురించి గాని, ఒప్పందములో ఒక rule ను గురించి గాని తెలియజేయు clause లో “should” సహాయక క్రియను ఒక ఊహాజనితమైన అభిప్రాయము తెలియజేయుటకు వాడతారు. ఆ ఊహ యదార్ధమైనది కాకపోవచ్చు. ఫరవా లేదు.
If it should rain, they will not come.
If he should see me here, he will be annoyed.

317. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలో మాదిరిగా Should మరియు would పదములను వాడవచ్చును.
(1) | should (or: would) like you to help her. (‘Should/would like” is a polite form of ‘want’).
(2) Would you lend me your scooter, please ? (‘Would you ?’ is more polite than ‘Will you ?’)
(3) You should have been more careful. (Should + perfect infinitive indicates a past obligation that was not fulfilled).
(4) He should be in the library now. (Expresses probability)
(5) I wish you would not chatter so much. (Would after wish expresses a strong desire).

Must, Ought To

318. Mustను అవసరాన్ని తెలియజేయుటకు మరియు బాధ్యత గురించి చెప్పుటకు ఉపయోగింతురు. You must improve your spelling.
We must get up early.
318 A . ప్రస్తుత కాలానికి (Present tense) మరియు సమీప భవిష్యత్తును గురించి (near future) చెప్పుటకు “Must” ను ఉపయోగిస్తాము. భూత కాలము లేక past tense ను గురించి చెప్పడానికి “had to” అను సంయుక్త పదమును వాడతాము. Must అను పదమునకు past tense లేదు. “Have to” అను present tense సంయుక్త పదమునకు “had to” అనునది past tense.
Yesterday we had to get up early.

319. Speaker కు బాధ్యత ఉన్నపుడు “Must” ను వాడతాము. భాధ్యత (obligation) యింకొకరికి ఉన్నపుడు “have to” అను జంట పదమును వాడతాము.I must be on a diet. (It is my own idea.)
I have to be on a diet. (The doctor has told me to be on a diet.)
319 A. తర్కశాస్త్ర సంబంధమైన (logical) భావముతో ఒక విషయమును చర్చించునపుడు కూడా Must అను పదమును వాడతాము.
Living in such crowded conditions must be difficult. (I am sure it is difficult.)
She must have left already. (I am sure she has left already).

320. Ought (to) అను సహాయక క్రియ (Auxiliary verb) ఒక నైతిక బాధ్యతనుగాని, ఒక
అభిలషణీయమైన విషయమునుగాని (desirability) తెలియజేయును.
We ought to love our neighbours.
We ought to help him. You ought to know better.

321. Ought (to) అను పదము “బహుశా ఇది సంభవమే” అనే అభిప్రాయాన్ని కూడా తెలియజేస్తుంది.
Prices ought to come down soon.
This book ought to be very useful.

Used (To), Need, Dare

32. Used (to) అను auxiliary పదము కొంత కాలం క్రితం విరమించుకున్న అవాటును గురించి
There used to be a house there.
I used to live there when I was a boy.
వాడుక English లో “Did you use to” మరియు “did not use to” అనే పదాలను వాడుచున్నారు. “Used to” మరియు “Used not to” అను పదాలు మరుగున పడిపోయినవి.

323. Need అను పదము అవసరాన్నిగాని, బాధ్యతనుగాని తెలియజేస్తుంది. దానిని do తో కలిపిగాని కలపకుండాగాని వాడవచ్చును. “Do” లేకుండా వాడినపుడు దానికి – S మరియు ed forms ఉండవు. దానిని – to లేకుండా ఒక infinitive తో కలిపి negative మరియు interrogative sentences లో వాడతారు. Scarcely మరియు hardly అను పదములతో వాడినపుడు అది semi-negative భావాన్ని యిస్తుంది (సగం negative భావము)
He need not go. (=It is not necessary for him to go.)
Need I write to him?
I need hardly take his help.

324. Need అను పదమును “do” తో కలిపినప్పుడు అది – needs మరియు -needed సరళిలో ఉండును. అది ఇచ్చట “to” తో వాడబడుతుంది. ఇది negative భావములలోను, ప్రశ్నించు భావములలోను వాడబడుతుంది. అర్ధ negative (semi-negative) వాక్యములలో కూడా వాడబడుతుంది. Scarcely మరియు hardly అనునవి semi-negative పదములు. ఈ రెండు పదములకు “కాదు” అనే భావం పూర్తిగా రాదు.
Do you need to go now?
I don’t need to meet him.
One needs to be careful.

325. ఈ క్రింది వానిని పోల్చి చూడండి :
1) I didn’t need to buy it. (అది నేను కొనియుండవలసిన అవసరము లేదు అందువలన నేను లేదు.
2) I needn’t have bought it. (అది నేను కొనవలసిన అవసరం లేదు కాని నేను కొన్నాను).
(1) I didn’t need to buy it. (=It was not necessary for me to buy it and I didn’t buy it.)
(2) I needn’t have bought it. (=It was not necessary for me to buy it, but I bought it.)

326. Auxiliary verb అయిన dare కు తగిన ధైర్యము కలిగి యుండుట) మామూలు verb అయిన dare (ధైర్యము) నకు అర్ధంలో తేడా ఉంది. ఈ పదము third person singular present tense form లో కూడ – Sతో రాదు. ఈ ప్రయోగము negative sentences లో మరియు interrogative sentences లో జరుగుతుంది. ఈ పదమును “do” అను పదముతో కలపకుండా వాడినపుడు infinitive ను పక్కన వాడతాము. కాని “to” ఉండదు. కాని “do” ని కలిపినపుడు infinitve ను “to” ను ఉంచిగాని ఉంచకుండా గాని వాడతాము.
He dare not take such a step.
How dare you contradict me ? He dared not do it.
He doesn’t dare speak to me.
సరియైన పదమును ఎంచుకొనుము.

అధ్యాయము 331

Conjugation Of The Verb Love

327. ఒక verb ను యింకొక word తో కలిపినపుడు, అది తద్వారా సంతరించుకున్న వివిధ రూపములను చూపుతుంది. ఈ మార్పు రూపభేదముల రూపంలో గాని (inflection), లేక ఇతర parts of other verb లతో కలిగిన కలియిక వలనగాని సంభవించును. ఈ పరిణామము Voice, Mood, Tense, Number and Person ల రూపములలో కనిపించును. అప్పుడు వానికి తగిన Infinitives మరియు Participles ను కలుపవలయును. ఈ క్రింది examples లో love అను verb యొక్క క్రియారూపక నిష్పత్తి (conjugation) = Verb చూపించు యివ్వబడినది. ఇది student కు చాలా సహాయకారిగా నుండును. Conjugation భావములో రూపభేదము.

(1) Tenses
Simple Present

Active
I love                              I am loved
You love                        You are loved
He loves                        He is loved
They love                      They are loved

Present Continuous

Active                                    Passive
I am loving                            I am being loved
You are loving                      You are being loved
He is loving                          He is being loved
We are loving                       We are being loved
They are loving                    They are being loved

Present Perfect

Active                                      Passive
I have been loved                   I have loved
You have loved                      You have been loved
He has loved                         He has been loved                     We have loved                      We have been loved
They have loved                   They have been loved

Present Perfect Continuous

Active                                                Passive
I have been loving                           ………………
You have been loving                      ………………
He had been loving                         ……………….
We have been loving                         ……………….
They have been loving                         ……………….

Simple Past

Active                                        Passive
I loved                                       I was loved
You loved                                  I was loved
He loved                                   He was loved
We loved                                   We were loved
They loved                                They were loved

Past Continuous

Active                                                         Passive
I was loving                                               I was being loved
You were loving                                         You were being loved
He was loving                                            He was being loved
They were loving                                       They were being loved

Past Perfect

Active                                                         Passive
I had loved                                                 I had been loved
You had                                                     loved you had been loved
He had                                                     He had been loved
We had                                                    We had been loved
They had                                                 They had been loved

Past Perfect Continuous

Active                                                  Passive
I had been loving                             ……………….
You had been loving                         ……………….
He had been loving                            ……………….
We had been loving                           ……………….
They had been loving                         ……………….

Simple Future

Active                                                           Passive
I shall / will love                                           I shall / will be loved
You will love                                                  You will be loved
He will love                                                   He will be loved
We shall love                                                We shall be loved
They will love                                                They will be loved

Future Continuous

Active                                                          Passive
I shall / will be loving                        ……………….
I will be loving                                   ……………….
You will be loving                             ……………….
He will be loving                               ……………….
We shall be loving                            ……………….

Future Perfect

 

Active                                                                               Passive
I shall / will have loved                                                     I shall / will have been loved
You will have loved                                                          You will have been loved
He will have loved                                                           He will have been loved
We shall have loved                                                        We shall have been loved.
They will have loved                                                        They will have been loved

Future Perfect Continuous

Active                                                                             Passive
I shall / will have been loving                               ……………….
You will have been loving                                  ……………….
He will have been loving                                  ……………….
We shall have been loving                               ……………….
They will have been loving                                ……………….

 

(2) The Imperative

Active                                                                   Passive
Love                                                                      Be loved

(3) Non-Finites

Active                                        Passive
Present Infinitive                  to love                                     to be loved
Continuous Infinitive           to be loving                              ………
Perfect Participle                 to have loved                          to have been loved
Present Participle                 loving                                      being loved
Perfect Participle                  having loved                            having been loved

The Adverb

328.
1. Rama runs quickly.
2. This is a very sweet mango.
3. Govind reads quite clearly.
(1) మొదటి వాక్యములో quickly అను పదము ఎలా (how) పరుగెత్తిందీ చెబుతూంది. అనగా quickly అను పదము Verb అయిన run అను పదమును సవివరంగా వివరిస్తుంది.
(2) రెండవ వాక్యములో very అను పదము how much (ఎంత) అనే అర్ధాన్ని వివరిస్తుంది. అనగా very అను adverb “runs” అనే verb ని విపులీకరిస్తుంది. ఇది sweet అనే Adjective ను ఇక్కడ అజమాయిషీ (modify) చేస్తుంది.
(3) మూడవ వాక్యములో quite అను Adverb ఎంత దూరము లేక ఎంత వరకు అను భావాన్ని వివరిస్తుంది. Quite అను Adverb యిచ్చట clearly అనే యింకొక Adverb ను వివరిస్తుంది.
ఒక పదము verb నకు, adjective నకు మరియు ఇంకొక adverb నకు additional గా వివరణ ఇచ్చినపుడు, అట్టి పదమును adverb అంటాము.
Def. (నిర్వచనము) :- Verb యొక్క గాని, Adjective యొక్క గాని ఇంకొక Adverb యొక్క గాని అర్ధమునకు అదనముగా వివరణ ఇచ్చినపుడు, అట్టి పదమును Adverb అంటాము. (Add + verb = Adverb)

329. ఇచ్చట Adverb కొన్ని సంయుక్త పదములను (phrases) వ్యాఖ్యానిస్తుంది.
She was sitting close beside him.
At what hour is the sun right above us?
Have you read all through this book?
She was dressed all in pink.
He paid his debts down to the last penny.

330. వాక్యమునకు ముందు భాగములో Adverb ఉన్నట్లయితే అట్టి Adverb, మొత్తము వాక్యమును
విశదీకరిస్తుంది (modifies)
Probably he is mistaken. [= It is probable that he is mistaken.]
Possibly it is as you say. Certainly, you are wrong.
Evidently, the figures are incorrect.
Unfortunately, no one was present there.
Luckily he escaped unhurt.

Kinds Of Adverbs

331. Adverbs ను వాని అర్ధములను బట్టి ఈ క్రింది విధములుగా విభజిచడం జరిగింది.
(1) కాలమును వివరించునవి (Adverbs of Time)
I have heard this before.                                                            That day he arrived late.
We shall now begin to work.                                                      He called here a few minutes ago.
I had a letter from him lately.                                                     The end soon came.
He comes here daily.                                                                  I hurt my knee yesterday.
I have spoken to him already.                                                     Wasted time never returns.
He once met me in Cairo; I have not seen him since.
Mr. Gupta formerly lived here.

(2) ఎన్ని సార్లు అనే భావమును తెలుపునవి (Adverbs of Frequency)
I have told you twice.                                                                         I have not seen him once.
He often makes mistakes.                                                                   He seldom comes here.
The postman called again. C He always tries to do his best.
He frequently comes unprepared.

(3) స్థలమును గురించి వివరించునవి (Adverbs of Place)
Stand here.                                                                        Go there.
The tittle lamb followed Mary
everywhere
He looked up.                                                                   My brother is out.
Is Mr. Das within?                                                              Come in.
The horse galloped away.                                                 Walk backward.

(4) ఏ విధముగా అనే విషయమును వివరించునవి (Adverbs of Manner)
Govind reads clearly.                                                 The Sikhs fought bravely.
This story is well written.                                           The boy works hard.
The child slept soundly.                                             I was agreeably disappointed.
Slowly and sadly we laid him down.                          Is that so?
You should not do so.                                                Thus only, will you succeed.

గమనిక (Note) : ఇవి – Iy తో అంతమగుచు adjectives నుండి వచ్చినట్టివి.
(5) Adverbs of Degree or Quantity (which show how much, or in what degree or to what extent). అనగా పరిమాణము లేక size ను గురించి చెప్పునవి.
He was too careless.                                                Is that any belter?
These mangoes are almost ripe.
I am fully prepared.                                                 You are quite wrong.
The sea is very stormy.                                             I am rather busy.
He is good enough for my pupose.
i am so glad.You are partly right.
You are altogether mistaken.
Things are no better at present.
She sings pretty well.                                             He is as tall as Rama.

(6) ఆవును అని కాని, కాదు అని కాని చెప్పునవి (Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation)
Surely you are mistaken.
He certainly went.                        I do not know him.

(7) Reason  Adverbs of Reason
He is hence unable to refute the charge.
He therefore left school.

332. పైన ఉదహరించిన adverbs కొన్ని ఒకే class (division) క్రిందకు గాక, ఒకటి కంటే ఎక్కువ classes లోనికి వచ్చును.
She sings delightfully.                                                      (Adverb of Manner)
The weather is delightfully cool.                                      (Adverb of Degree)
Don’t go far.                                                                     (Adverb of Place)
He is far better now.                                                        (Adverb of Degree)

గమనిక (Note): పైన చూపబడిన ఉదాహరణలు అన్నియూ Simple Adverbs కు చెందినవి. (See §336)
333. కొన్ని సందర్భములలో Yes మరియు n అను adverbs మొత్తం entences లో ఉన్న అర్ధాన్ని ఇవ్వడం జరుగుతుంది.
Have you typed the letter?
Yes.
[Here yes stands for the sentence ‘I have typed the letter’.]
Are you going to Japan?
No.
[Here no means ‘I am not going to Japan’.]

334. Adverbs ను ప్రశ్నలకు వాడినట్లయితే, అట్టి వానిని interrogative Adverbs అంటారు.
Where is Abdul?
[Inter. Adverb of Place]
When did you come ?
[Inter. Adverb of Time)
Why are you late ?
[Inter. Adverb of Reason]
How did you contrive it ?
How many boys are there in your class?
[Inter. Adverb of Manner]
How high is Rajabai Tower ?
[Inter. Adverb of Number] [Inter. Adverb of Degree]

335. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములను చదవండి.
Show me the house where (= in which) he was assaulted.
ఇచ్చట verb అయినట్టి “was assaulted” ను Adverb అయిన where అను పదము వివరిస్తుంది. (“modifies”). a where ed Adverb Relative Pronoun e
“house”
ప్రభావితం చేయుచున్నది. మొత్తం భావాన్ని house అను పదం వైపు మళ్ళించుచున్నది. కావున దీనిని Relatives Adverb అంటారు.
Relatives Adverbs యొక్క మరికొన్ని ఉదాహరణలు :
This is the reason why I left.
Do you know the time when the Punjab Mail arrives?

336. ఇచ్చట క్రిందచూపబడిన విధంగా Adverbs ను వాని వాని ఉపయోగములను బట్టి మూడు భాగములుగా విభజించడం జరిగింది. :
(1) ఒక verb యొక్క గాని, ఒక adjective యొక్కగాని లేక ఒక adverb యొక్కగాని అర్ధములను లేక భావములను వివరించేవి Simple Adverbs :
I can hardly believe it.
How brightly the moon shines!
You are quite wrong.
(2) ప్రశ్నలు వెయ్యడానికి పనికి వచ్చేవి Interrogative Adverbs
Why are you late?
(3) ఇంకొక భావముతో సంబంధం కలిగియున్న Relative Adverbs. ఇవి వెనుకన ఉన్న nouns ను ప్రభావితం చేయుచున్నవి.
I remember the house where I was born.

337 మరియొక సూచన :
(1) Simple Adverb 33 as
(2) Interrogative Adverb ఇంకొక పదమును వివరించడమే కాక, ప్రశ్నను కూడా వేస్తుంది.
(3) Relative Adverb ఒక పదాన్ని వివరించడమే కాక, తన భావమును వెనుకకు మరల్చి noun దగ్గరకు తీసుకొని వెళ్ళుతుంది.

Forms Of Adverbs

338. కొన్ని Adverbs అవి ఏ Adjectives ను వివరించుచున్నవో అదే Adjectives యొక్క form లో ఉంటాయి. అనగా కొన్ని పదములు adjectives గాను మరియు adverbs గాను వాడబడుతాయి.
Adjectives
He spoke in a loud voice.
Rama is our fast bowler.
He lives in the next house.
He went to the back entrance.
Every little difficulty ruffles his temper.
This is a hard sum.
It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.
He is the best boy in this class.
He is quick to take offence.
Are you an early riser?
The teacher has a high opinion of that boy.
He is the only child of his parents.
We have food enough to last a week.
He is no better than a fool.
There is much truth in what he says.
Adverbs
Don’t talk so loud.
Rama can bowl fast.
When I next see him, I shall speak to him.
Go back.
He is little known outside India.
He works hard all day.
I can ill afford to lose him.
He behaves best..
Run quick.
We started early.
Always aim high.
You can only guess.
She sings well enough.
He knows me better than you.
The patient is much better.
ఒక పదము ఒక వాక్యములో అది చేయు పనిని బట్టిఅది ఏ part of speech కి చెందినదో చెప్పనగును

అభ్యాసము 61
క్రింద ఇవ్వబడిన పదములను Adjectives గాను మరియు Adverbs గాను ఉపయోగిస్తూ వాక్యములను
రాయండి.
Very, near, ill, only, clean, long, late, early, fast.

339. కొన్ని Adverbs కు రెండు forms ఉండును. కొన్ని – ly తో అంతమగును. కొన్నిటిలో ly ఉండదు. అవి Adjective మాదిరిగానే ఉండును.
He sings very loud. He sings very loudly.
పైన చూపిన రెండు విధములైన Adverbs కొన్ని సందర్భములలో different meanings ఇవ్వడం జరుగుతుంది.
Rama works hard (= diligently).
I could hardly (= scarcely) recognize him. Stand near. (Opposed to distant)
Rama and Hari are nearly (= closely) related.
He arrived late. (Opposed to early).
I have not seen him lately (= recently).
I am pretty (= tolerably, fairly) sure of the fact.
She is prettily (= neatly, elegantly) dressed.

340. Prepositions తరువాత కొన్ని Adverbs ను నామవాచకములుగా గూడా వాడవచ్చును.
He lives far from here (= this place). “Here” acts here as noun.
He comes from there (= that place).
I have heard that before now (= this time).
By then ( that time) the police arrived on the scene.
Since when (= what time) have you taken to smoking?
The rain comes from above.
గమనిక (Note): “Thence” మరియు “whence” లతో “from” అను పదమును కలిపివాడుట తప్పు. Thence = from there; whence = from where. 508 “from” s05e Sáák do వాడినట్లు అర్ధం వస్తుంది. కావున తప్పు.

341. కొన్ని సార్లు కొన్ని Adverbs ను Adjectives గా వాడినట్లు అనిపిస్తుంది.
The then king the king then reigning.
A down train = a down-going train.
An up train an up-going train.
The above statement the statement made above.

342. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలో “the” అను పదము definite article కాదు. Adverb గా వాడబడిన demonstrative pronoun.
The more the merrier [= by how much the more by so much the merrier;
that is, the more numerous a party is, the more enjoyable it is].
The fewer the better [= by how much the fewer by so much the better).
The sooner the better [= by how much the sooner by so much the better).
He has tried it and is [so much] the better for it.
Adjective యొక్క గాని adverb యొక్క గాని comparative degree లో మాత్రమే the అను difinite articel adverb 6. difinite articel ex the adjective m adverb తోగాని కలిపి వాడినపుడే ఇది సాధ్యం అవుతుంది.

343. Time, place, distance, weight, measurement, value, degree on Sonobe పదముల యొక్క భావములను Nouns తెలియజేయునపుడు అవి adverbs అగును.
The siege lasted a week.
He went home.
The load weighs three tonnes.
The cloth measures three metres.
The wound was skin deep.
This will last me a month.
We walked five miles.
It measures five feet.
The watch is only fifty rupees.
పై విధముగా వాడిన నామవాచకమును Adverbial Accusative అంటారు. 344. కొన్ని సందర్భములలో Verbs ను కూడా Adverbs గా ఉపయోగిస్తారు.
Smack went the whip.

అధ్యాయము 35

Comparison Of Adverbs

345. కొన్ని Adverbs కు, Adjectives కు లాగానే degrees of comparison ఉంటవి :

346. Adverb & syllable (sound unit) sony 38ges, as Comparative degree రూపకల్పన చేయవలసి వచ్చినపుడు – erను కలుపుతాము. అదే Adverb పదమును Superlative degree గా మార్చవలసివచ్చినపుడు దానికి – est ని కలుపుతాము.
Fast
Long
faster longer
Rama ran fast. (Positive)
fastest
longest
Hard Soon
harder
hardest
sooner
soonest
Arjun ran faster. (Comparative)
Hari ran fastest of all. (Superlative)

347. Iy తో అంతమగు Adverbs కు more ను కలిపి Comparative ను, mostను కలిపి Superlative ను form చేస్తాము.
Swiftly
Skilfully
more swiftly
more skilfully
Abdul played skilfully. (Positive)
most swiftly
most skilfully
Karim played more skilfully than Abdul. (Comparative)
Of all the eleven Ahmed played most skilfully. (Superlative)
కాని ఇచ్చట early, earlier, earliest అను రూపములను గమనించండి. ఇచ్చట పై సూత్రమునకు తేడా వచ్చింది కదా.
I came early this morning.
Ram came earlier.
obem inom
Abdul came earliest of all.

348. Manner (తరహా), Degree మరియు Timeకు సంబంధించిన Adverbs కు మాత్రమే పైచెప్పిన Degrees of comparison రూలు వర్తించును. కాని చాలా Adverbs కు Degrees of comparison రూలు వర్తించదు.
కొన్ని Adverbs ను వాటి స్వభావరీత్యా వానిని compare చేయడానికి వీలుకాదు.
Now, then, where, there, once.
349. అతి సర్వసాధారణమైన Adverbs ఒక rule అంటూ ఏమీ లేకుండా irregular గా తమ Comparative మరియు Superlative డిగ్రీలను form చేసుకొనును.

PositiveComparativeSuperlative
III, badlyworseworst
Wellbetterbest
Muchmoremost
Littlelessleast
(Nigh), nearnearernearest/next
Farfartherfarthest
Latelaterlatest

Rama writes well.
Arjun writes better than Rama,
Hari writes best of all.
Do you work much?
I work more than you do.
Harl works most of the three of us /ВЯАЧМОО
అభ్యాసము 621
ఈ క్రింద ఇవ్వబడిన Adverbs ను పోల్చి చూడుము. Suddenly, often, near, loud, hard, wisely, patiently.

Formation Of Adverbs

Adjective  కలుపుట ద్వారా Adverbs of Manner (ఒక పద్ధతి ఒక క్రమము తెలుపునట్టివి) form చేసుకొనవచ్చును. ( like ను చెడగొట్టగా ly వచ్చింది)
Clever, cleverly: wise, wisely; kind, kindly; foolish, foolishly quick, quickly:
beautiful, beautifully.
Akbar was a wise king.
He ruled wisely for many years.
ఒక Adjective “y” తో అంతమగుచు, దానికి ముందున consonant పదము ఉండినట్లయితే, ఆ “శ్రీ” ని “” గా మార్చి ” ly ” ని కలపండి. ఈ విధంగా :
Happy, happily ready, readily; heavy, heavily.

Adjective te అంతమైనపుడు అని y గా మార్చవలయును.
Single, singly; double, doubly.
351. ఒక నామవాచక పదమును, దానిని వివరించు Adjective ను కలిపినపుడు కొన్ని Adverbs form అగును.
Sometimes, meantime, meanwhile, yesterday, midway, otherwise.

352. కొన్ని Adverbs – a అను letter ను కలుపుట ద్వారా form అగును.
Afoot (= on foot), abed, asleep, ahead, aboard, away.
మరికొన్ని సందర్భములలో Preposition పదమును Noun ను కలుపుట ద్వారా Adverb పదము
Betimes, besides, to-day, to-morrow; overboard.
గమనిక (Note: Be అను Preposition మరియొక Preposition అయిన – by యొక్క పాతకాలపు రూపము.

353. కొన్ని సందర్భములలో Preposition మరియు Adjective కలిసి Adverb గా form అగును. Abroad, along, aloud, anew, behind, below, beyond.

354. కొన్ని Adverbs పదములు Preposition మరియు ఇంకొక Adverb కలిసియుండుట ద్వారా ఏర్పడును.
Within, without, before, beneath.

355.

ADVERBS
PRONOUNSPlaceMotion toMotion fromTimeManner
Thetherethitherthencethenthus
Heherehitherhence…..……
Whowherewhitherwhencewhenhow

356. పైన ఉదహరించిన Adverbs చాలా వరకు Preposition తో కలుపబడినట్టివి.
herewith;
Thereby, therefrom, therein, thereof, thereon, thereto, therewith; hereafter, hereby, herein, hereupon,
wherefore, wherein, whereon, whereof:
hitherto;
thenceforth, thenceforward :
henceforth, henceforward.

357. Conjunction అయిన – and ను ఉపయోగించుట ద్వారా ఈ క్రింద చూపిన జంట Adverb పదములు ఏర్పడును:-
again and again (= more than once, repeatedly), 5o 55 más e Phrase Adverb అయినది.
by and by (= before long, presently, after a time).
far and near (= in all directions).
far and wide (= comprehensively).
far and away (= by a great deal, decidedly, beyond all comparison).
first and foremost (= first of all).
now and then (= from time to time, occasionally),
now and again (= at intervals, sometimes, occasionally).
off and on (not regularly, intermittently).
once and again (= on more than one occasion, repeatedly),
out and away (= beyond comparison, by far),
out and out (= decidedly, beyond all comparison),
over and above (= in addition to, besides, as well as),
over and over (= many times, frequently, repeatedly),
through and through (= thoroughly, completely).
thus and thus (= in such and such a way).
to and fro (= backwards and forwards, up and down).
Good books should be read again and again.
I wamed him again and again. By and by the tumult will subside. His fame has spread far and near. As a statesman he saw far and wide.
This is far and away the best course.
He is far and away the best bowler in our eleven.
He now and then writes on fiscal questions.
I write to him now and then.
He worked ten years, off and on, on his Pali Dictionary.
HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMAR
I have told you once and again that you must not read such trash.
This is out and away the best work on Astronomy.
He gained over and above this, the goodwill of all people.
Over and above being hard-working he is thoroughly honest.
He reads all the novels of Scott over and over.
I believe Sachin is out and out the best Indian batsman.
He has read Milton through and through.
Thus and thus only we shall succeed.
He walked to and fro, meditating.

అధ్యాయము 37

Position Of Adverbs

358. ‘How ‘?’ అను ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానం చెప్పే పదములను Adverbs of manner అని అంటారు. (e.g., well, fast, quickly, carefully, calmly).
object తరువాత గాని వాడతారు. కొన్ని examples:
It is raining heavily.
The ship is going slowly.
She speaks English well.
He does his work carefully.
verb

359. & place 300 m (e.g., here, there, everywhere, on the wall) & time (e.g., now, then, yet, today, next Sunday) 3 80 m 3580 Adverbs 38 Adverb phrases లను verb తరువాత ఉంచడం జరుగుతుంది. ఇంకా, ఇట్టి adverbs కు ఆ వాక్యములో object (కర్మ పదము) ఉండినట్లయిన, అట్టి object పదము తరువాత కూడా సాధారణంగా ఉంచడం జరుగుతుంది.
He will come here.
I looked everywhere.
Hang the picture there.
I met him yesterday.
They are to be married next week.

360. Verb పదము తరువాత గాని దాని object తరువాత గాని, రెండు గాని అంతకంటే ఎక్కువగాని adverb ఉన్నట్లయితే వాని వరుస క్రమము (placement) ఈ విధంగా ఉంటుంది. మొదట adverb of manner వస్తుంది. తరువాత adverb of place. ఆఖరున adverb of time వస్తుంది.
She sang well in the concert.
We should go there tomorrow evening.
He spoke earnestly at the meeting last night.

361. ఎన్ని సార్లు అను ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానం చెప్పే పదములను Adverbs of frequency (ఇన్ని సార్లు అని అంటారు. (e.g., always, never, often, rarely, usually, generally) పైన ఉనహరించిన Adverbs ఇతరములైన మరికొన్ని Adverbs (almost, already, hardly, nearly, just, quite etc.) కు సాధారణంగా subject కు verb కు మధ్య ఉంచడం జరుగుతుంది. అట్టి సందర్భములో క్రియా పదము (verb) ఒకే మాట కలిగి యుండవలయును. ఒక వేళ అచ్చట క్రియా భావములో ఒకటి కంటే ఎక్కువ verb words ఉన్నట్లయితే,
మొదటి మాట తరువాత మిగిలిన వానిని ఉంచవలయును.
His wife never cooks.
He has never seen a tiger.
I have often told him to write neatly. We usually have breakfast at eight.
My uncle has just gone out.
I quite agree with you.

362. Veram / are / is / was అను పదములలో ఏదో ఒకటి అయి ఉంటే పై adverbs ను verb తరువాత ఈ క్రింది విధంగా ఉంచడం జరుగుతుంది :
I am never late for school.
He is always at home on Sundays.
We are just off.

363. ఈ adverb పదములు మామూలుగా auxiliary verb పదము ముందుగాని, single verb “be” ముందుగాని ఉంచబడును. ఇచ్చట ఆ adverb యొక్క భావమును నొక్కివక్కాణించినట్లగుతుంది. “Abdul has come late again.” “Yes, he always does come late” “When will you write the essay ?” “But I already have written it.” “Will you be free on Sundays ?” “I usually am free on Sundays.” “Do you eat meat ?” “Yes, I sometimes do.”
Auxiliary verb ను క్లుప్తంగా ఒక్క మాటలో పైన పేర్కొన్న ఆఖరి ఉదాహరణలో మాదిరిగా quick reply గాను వాడినట్లయితే, దానికి ప్రాముఖ్యము ఇచ్చినట్లవుతుంది. అందువలన auxiliary ముందు adverb ఉంటుంది. ఇచ్చట “sometimes” అను adverb, auxiliary verb అయిన “do” కు ముందు భాగంలో ఉన్నది.

364. “Have to” మరియు “used to” అను auxiliary verb పదములు వానికి ముందు భాగముననే adverb పదములు ఉండుటకు అంగీకరించును.
I often have to go to college on foot.
He always used to agree with me.

365. ఒక adverb ఒక adjective ని వివరించినపుడు (modify చేసినపుడు) లేక ఇంకొక adverb ను
అదే విధంగా వివరించినపుడు, అట్టి adverb వివరింపబడిన దానికి ముందు వస్తుంది.
Rama is a rather lazy boy.
The dog was quite dead.
The book is very interesting.
Do not speak so fast.

366. Enough అను adverb మాత్రం అది దేనినైతే సవరిస్తుందో దాని తరువాతనే ఉంటుంది.
Is the box big enough ?
He was rash enough to interrupt.
He spoke loud enough to be heard.

367. సర్వసాధారణంగా, only అను పదము అది దేనినైతే సవరిస్తుందో దానికి ముందుననే ఉంచబడుతుంది.
I worked only two sums.
He has slept only three hours.
Spoken English లో పై విధంగా modify చేసే adverb పదము verb పదమునకు ముందు భాగములో వాడబడుతుంది.
I only worked ‘two’ sums.
He has only slept ‘three hours.

The Preposition

368. మొదటి వాక్యములో in అను పదము cow కు field కు మధ్యనున్న సంబంధాన్ని వివరిస్తుంది. రెండవ వాక్యములో of అను పదము fond అను పదము యొక్క adjective భావమునకు tea కి మధ్య ఉన్న సంబంధాన్ని తెలియజేస్తుంది.
మూడవ వాక్యములో off అను పదము jumped అను verb లోని action కు chair అనుnoun మధ్యగల సంబంధాన్ని తెలియజేస్తుంది.
నిర్వచనం (Def) : Noun కు ముందునగాని pronoun కు ముందునగాని ఉంచబడి, ఆ పదమునకు sentence లోని ఇంకొక పదమునకు మధ్యగల సంబంధాన్ని తెలుయజేయు పదమును Preposition
అంటారు.
(Preposition అనగా ‘ముందు ఉంచబడునది’ అని అర్ధం)
ఇక్కడ గమనించవలసినది (వివరణ భావాన్ని కూడా కలుపుకోవాలి)
మొదటి వాక్యములో preposition ఒక noun ను ఇంకొక noun తో కలుపుతుంది.
రెండవ వాక్యములో preposition ఒక noun ను ఒక adjective తో కలుపుతుంది.
మూడవ వాక్యములో preposition ఒక noun ను ఒక verb తో కలుపుతుంది.

369. Noun నిగాని Pronoun నిగాని Preposition తో కలిపి ప్రయోగించినట్లయితే, అట్టి Noun m Pronoun గాని ఆ Preposition పదమునకు Object అవుతూంది. రూలు 368 లోని మొదటి వాక్యములో field అను నామవాచక పదము in అను preposition కు object అయినది.

370. ఒక సందర్భములో Preposition కు రెండు గాని అంతకుమించి గాని Objects ఉండవచ్చును.
The road runs over hill and plain.

371. Preposition (విభక్త్యర్ధకమైన అవ్యయము) సర్వసాధారణంగా దాని object కు ముందున ఉంటుంది. కాని కొన్ని సందర్భములలో అది object తరువాత ఉంటుంది.
1. Here is the watch that you asked for.
2. That is the boy (whom) I was speaking of.
3. What are you looking at?
4. What are you thinking of?
5. Which of these chairs did you sit on?
Note 1: ఇచ్చట మొదటి వాక్యములోలాగా object పదము Relative Pronoun అయిన that అయిన సందర్భములో Preposition ను తప్పనిసరిగా వాక్యము యొక్క చివరి భాగములో ఉంచుతాము. 3,4,5 వాక్యములలో మాదిరిగా Preposition అధీనములోనున్న దాని object పదము interrogative pronoun అయినట్లయితే, అట్టి Preposition ను వాక్యము చివరన ఉంచుతాము.
Note 2 : నొక్కినొక్కాణించుటకు మరియు ప్రాముఖ్యము చూపించుటకు, ఒకోసారి object ను వాక్యము యొక్క ప్రారంభములోనే ఉంచుతాము.
This I insist on. He is known alf the world over.

372. For, from, in, on
ముందు omit చేస్తాము.
Prepositions place, time o nouns
We did it last week. I cannot walk a yard. Wait a minute.

Kinds Of Prepositions

373. Prepositions ను ఈ క్రింది తరగతులుగా విభజింపవచ్చును .
(1) Simple Prepositions.
At, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with.
(2) Compound Prepositions. 2 JÁJKÉNK mo, Adjective 55m, Adverb నకుగాని Preposition ను ముందు కలుపుట ద్వారా ఏర్పడును. (a = not; be = by)
About, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, without.
(3) Phrase Prepositions. ఇవి ఒక గ్రూపుగానున్ననూ మొత్తం కలిసి ఒక preposition కు ఉన్న force ఇచ్చును.
according to agreeably to
in accordance with
in addition to
along with away from because of
by dint of
by means of
in (on) behalf of
in case of
in comparison
to in compliance
within consquence of
in place of
in reference to
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
in the event of
on account of
by reason of
by virtue of
by way of
conformably to
for the sake of
in course of
in favour of
in front of
in lieu of
in order to

క్రింది వాక్యములను పరిశీలించండి.
with a view to with an eye to
with reference to
with regard to
He succeeded by dint of perseverance and sheer hard work.
In case of need, phone .
By virtue of the power vested in me. I hereby order, etc.
In consequence of his illness he could not finish the work in time.
Owing to his ill health, he retired from business.
With reference to your letter of date, we regret we cannot allow any further rebate.
In order to avoid litigation, he accepted Rs. 300 in full settlement of his claim for Rs. 450
In course of time he saw his mistake.
He died fighting on behalf of his country.
On behalf of the staff he read the address.
He persevered in spite of difficulties.
In the event of his dying without an issue, his nephew would inherit the whole property.
Instead of talking, prove your worth by doing something.
By reason of his perverse attitude, he estranged his best friends.
He acted according to my instructions.
Why don’t you go along with your brother?
In accordance with your instructions, we have remitted the amount to your bankers.
There is a big tree in front of his house.
Agreeably to the terms of the settlement, we herewith enclose our cheque for Rs. 1000. By way of introduction, he made some pertinent remarks.
By means of rope ladders they scaled the wall.
For the sake of their beliefs, the Puritans emigrated to America.
In course of his researches he met with many difficulties.
He abdicated the throne in favour of his eldest son.
He could not attend school because of his father’s serious illness.
He accepted the car in lieu of his claim for Rs. 1,25,000.
With a view to an amicable settlement, we offer you without prejudice
Rs. 750 in full settlement of all your claims up-to-date.
On account of his negligence the company suffered a heavy loss. Whatever he does, he does with an eye to the main chance.

374. Barring, concerning, considering, during, notwithstanding, pending, regarding, respecting, touching అను పదములను మరియు verb యొక్క present participles అయిన మరికొన్ని పదములను, ఒక noun గాని ఒక pronoun గాని తోడులేకుండా ఏకధాటిగా వాడవచ్చును. ఇవి కూడా పూర్తిస్థాయి Prepositions అగును. వీనిని Participial Prepositions అంటారు.
Barring (= excepting, apart from) accident, the mail will arrive tomorrow. Concerning (about) yesterday’s fire, there are many rumours in the bazar. Considering ( taking into account) the quality, the price is not high.
Ulysses is said to have invented the game of chess during the siege of Troy.
Notwithstanding (= in spite of) the resistance offered by him, he was arrested by the police.
Pending further orders, Mr. Desai will act as Headmaster.
Regarding your inquiries, we regret to say that at present we are not interested in imitation silk. Respecting the plan you mention, I shall write to you hereafter.
Touching (= with regard to) this matter, I have not as yet made up my mind.

375. చాలా రకములైన పదములను కొన్నిసార్లు Adverbs గాను కొన్ని సార్లు Prepositions గాను వాడెదము. ఒక noun ను గాని pronoun ను గాని ఆదేశించినపుడు అవి Prepositions అవుతవి. ఈ విధంగా noun ను గాని pronoun ను గాని govern చెయ్యనపుడు అట్టి పదము Adverb అవుతుంది.
Adverb
Go, and run about.
I could not come before.
Has he come in?
The wheel came off.
Let us move on.
His father arrived soon after.
Take this parcel over to the post-office.
I have not seen him since.
Preposition
Don’t loiter about the street.
I came the day before yesterday.
Is he in his room?
The driver jumped off the car.
The book lies on the table.
After a month he returned.
He rules over a vast empire.
I have not slept since yesterday.

అభ్యాసము 66
Prepositions మరియు Adverbs ను ఉదహరించుటకు వీలుగా వాక్యములను రూపొందించుము. (1) as Prepositions, 0 (2) as Adverbs.
Behind, up, by, along, in, about, beyond, under, before, after.

376. Preposition కు object (కర్మ భావము) గా Noun గాని Pronoun గాని ఉంటుందని మనము ఇంత వరకు చదివాము. అయినప్పటికి కొన్నిసార్లు Time ను గురించిగాని Place ను గురించిగాని చెప్పునటువంటి Adverbs కూడా Preposition కు object గా ఉండును. (రూల్ 340 ని కూడా చూడండి)
It will be done by then (= that time).
Since then (= that time) he has not shown his face.
Come away from there (= that place).
He must have reached there by now (this time).
How far is it from here (= this place) ?
It cannot last for ever.

377. Adverbial Phrase కూడా కొన్ని సార్లు Preposition కు object గా ఉంటుంది.
Each article was sold at over a pound.
The noise comes from across the river.
He was not promoted to the rank of a colonel till within a few months of his resignation.
I sold my car for under its half cost.
He swore from dawn till far into the night.
He did not see her till a few days ago.
I was thinking about how to circumvent him.

378. & clause (partial sentence) & Soda Preposition object m
ఉంటుంది.
Pay careful attention to what I am going to say.
There is no meaning in what you say.
379. Relative pronoun, Preposition & object mode relative pronoun
ను కొన్ని సార్లు omit చేయడం జరుగుతుంది.
He is the man I was looking for. [Here whom is understood).
These are the good rules to live by. [Here which is understood.]

అభ్యాసము 671
ఈ క్రింద ఖాళీలను తగిన Prepositions తో పూరించుము.
1.
The dog ran the road.
3.
The work was done
haste.
5.
I am fond music.
7.
He died his country.
2. The river flows
4. He is afraid
6. He goes
the bridge.
the dog.
Sunday church.

380. సాధారణంగా Prepositions ను verbs తో కలిపి ప్రయోగిస్తారు. అప్పుడు కొత్త verbs సంభవించును. అట్టి సందర్భములలో కొన్నిసార్లు Prepositions, verb క ముందున ఉండును.
Outbid, overcome, overflow, overlook, undergo, undertake, uphold, withdraw, withhold, withstand. చాలా సందర్భములలో Prepositions, verb ను follow అయి ఉంటాయి. అప్పుడు విడివిడి
పదములుగా ఉంటాయి. ఈ విధంగా
Boast of, laugh at, look for, send for. He boasted of his accomplishments.
He looked for his watch everywhere. Please send for Rama.
Everyone laughed at him.

Relations Expressed By Prepositions

381. Prepositions కు ఇతర parts of speech పదములతో గల సంబంధాలు ఈ క్రింద చూపబడినవి. (1) Place ()
Went about the world; ran across the road; leaned against a wall; fell among thieves; quarrelled among themselves; at death’s door; athwart the deck; stood before the door; stood behind the curtain; lies below the surface; sat beside me; plies between Mumbai and Alibag stand by me; rain comes from the clouds; in the sky; fell into a ditch; lies near his heart; Kolkata is on the Hooghly; the cliff hangs over the sea; tour round the world: marched through the town; came to the end of the road; put pen to paper; travelled towards Nasik; lay under the table; climbed up the ladder; lies upon the table; within the house; stood without the gate.
(2) Time
After his death; at an early date; arrived before me; behind time; by three o’clock; during the whole day; for many years; from 1st April; in the afternoon; sat watching far on into the night; lived under the Moghuls; on Monday; pending his return; since yesterday; lasted through the night; throughout the year, wait till to-morrow; ten minutes to twelve; towards evening; until his arrival; rise with the sun; within a month.
(3) Agency, instrumentality (noon)
Sell goods at auction; sent the parcel by post; was stunned by a blow; was destroyed by fire; heard this through a friend; cut it with a knife.
(4) Manner (పద్ధతి) అనగా grammar లో యిచ్చట శాస్త్రీయమైన పద్ధతి అనే భావం వస్తుంది. Dying by inches; fought with courage; worked with earnestness, won with ease. (5) Cause, reason, purpose (కారణము, వివేకము లేక ఇందువల్ల అను భావము – ఉద్దేశ్యము) Laboured for the good of humanity; died of fever; the very place for a picnic; did it for our good; suffers from gout; died from fatigue; does it from perversity; retreated through fear of an ambush; concealed it through shame; lost his purse through negligence; shivers with fever; took medicine for cold.
(6) Possession
There was no money on him; the mosque of Omar; a man of means; the boy with red hair.
(7) Measure, standard, rate, value; (ప్రమాణము – ధర విలువ మొ.)
He charges interest at nine per cent. Stories like these must be taken at what they are worth. Cloth is sold by the yard. I am taller than you by two inches. It was one by the tower-clock. (8) Contrast, concession;
After (in spite of, notwithstanding) every effort, one may fail. For one enemy he has a hundred friends. For (in spite of) all his wealth he is not content. With (in spite of) all his faults I admire him.
(9) Inference, motive, source, or origin; ( ఉద్దేశ్యము – ఆధారము)
From what I know of him, I hesitate to trust him. The knights were brave from gallantry of spirit. He did it from gratitude. Light emanates from the sun. From labour health, from health contentment springs. This is a quotation from Milton. His skill comes from practice. గమనిక (Note) : Prepositions ను ఉపయోగించిన విధానమునుబట్టి దాని స్థానం వాక్యములలో ఉంటుంది. ఉపయోగించే సుళువులు గురించి మంచి అవగాహన ఉండాలి.

382. ఈ క్రింది Prepositions కు ప్రత్యేకమైన గుర్తింపు ఉన్నది :-
(1) నగరాలు, పట్టణాలు, గ్రామాల ముందు, in గాని at గాని వాడుతాము. ఒక ప్రదేశం మొత్తాన్ని
గురించి in ను అందులో ఒక ప్రాంతాన్ని గురించి at ను వాడుతాము.
We stayed in Mumbai for five days.
Our plane stopped at Mumbai on the way to Iran. (Mumbai = Mumbai airport)
How long have you lived in this village?
(2) ఒక సంఘము యొక్క కార్యక్రమాలకు, షాపులకు, workplaces కు at ను వాడుతాము.
Did you see Shobha at the party?
There weren’t many people at the meeting.
I saw him at the baker’s.
(3) ఇంటి నంబరుకు at ను streets కు in ను వాడుతాము.
He lives, in Church Street.
He lives at 45 Church Street.
(4) ఒక ప్రదేశము యొక్క పై భాగాన్ని గురించి చెప్పడానికి on వాడుతాము.
The dog is lying on the floor.
Put this picture on the wall.
(5) Time ను వివరించడానికి The ని, ఒక చోటును వివరించడానికి to ను వాడుతాము.
He slept till eight o’clock.
He walked to the end of the street.
(6) With పదము ఒక పరికరానికి, by పదాన్ని ఏజంటు రూపానికి వాడుతాము.
He killed two birds with one shot,
He was stabbed by a lunatic with a dagger.
(7)Time ను గురించి చెప్పునపుడు, noun ముందు Since వాడాలి. perfect tense లలో verb కు ముందున since ఉంటుంది.
I have eaten nothing since yesterday.
He has been ill since Monday last.
I have not been smoking since last week.
(8) Time గురించి చెప్పే noun ముందు in ఉంటుంది.
I shall return in an hour, I shall return within an hour.
(9) Beside పదానికి at అర్ధం గాని by అర్థంగాని వస్తుంది. besides అంటే ఇంకా ఏమిటనగా అనే అర్ధం వస్తుంది.
Beside the ungathered rice he lay.
Besides his children, there were present his nephews and nieces. Besides being fined, he was sentenced to a term of imprisonment.

Prepositions With FormsS Of Transport

383. We use by + noun when we talk about means of transport. We do not use the or alan before the noun; as,
We travelled by train, (not: by thela train)
We say by bicycle, by car/ taxi/bus/train, by boat/ ship/ plane, by air/sea.
We do not use by when the reference is to a specific bicycle, car, train, etc.
Suresh went there on my bike. (not: by my bike)
We travelled in Mr.Joshi’s car. (not by Mr. Joshi’s car)
They came in a taxi.
I’ll go on the 7.30 bus.
We use on to mean a specific bicycle, bus, train, ship or plane, and in to mean a specific car, taxi, van, lorry or ambulance.

Words Followed By Prepositions

We say on foot (not by foot).
He goes to the office on foot. (= He walks to the office.)
అధ్యాయము 39

Words Followed By Prepositions

384. కొన్ని ప్రత్యేకమైన Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives మరియు Participles చాలా వరకు అలానే కొన్ని ప్రత్యేకమైన Prepositions తో follow అవ్వబడును. ఏ పదమునకు ఏ Preposition పదము సరిపోతుందో ఈ క్రింది examples ద్వారా గమనించండి :-
Mumbai is famous for its textiles.
The goat subsists on the coarsest of food.
Jawaharlal Nehru was fond of children.
India is a noble, gorgeous land, teeming with natural wealth.
Being apprised of our approach, the whole neighbourhood came out to meet their minister.
In the classical age the ideal life of the Brahman was divided into four stages or ashrams.
It is natural in every man to wish for distinction.
He was endowed with gifts fitted to win eminence in any field of human activity.
The writer is evidently enamoured of the subject.
These computers are cheap enough to be accessible to most people.
Ambition does not always conduce to ultimate happiness.
The true gentleman is courteous and affable to his neighbours.
Newly acquired freedom is sometimes liable to abuse.
Little Jack proved quite a match for the giant.
Camels are peculiarly adapted to life in the desert.
He is a man of deep learning, but totally ignorant of life and manners.
The income derived from the ownership of land is commonly called rent.
The Moors were famous for their learning and their skill in all kinds of industries.
Alexander profited by the dissensions of the Punjab Rajas.
Few things are impossible to diligence and skill.
I am indebted to you for your help.
Ashoka, although tolerant of competing creeds, was personally an ardent Buddhist.
The celebrated grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga. The African elephant is now confined to Central Africa.
Ivory readily adapts itself to the carver’s art.
Coleridge’s poetry is remarkably for the perfection of its execution.
The holy tree is associated with scenes of goodwill and rejoicing.
The noise from downstairs prevented me from sleeping.
I am already acquainted with the latest developments of the situation.
His duties were of a kind ill-suited to his ardent and daring character.
Man is entirely different from other animals in the utter helplessness of his babyhood.
A residence of eight years in Sri Lanka had inured his system to the tropical climate.
The ancient Greeks, though bom in a warm climate, seem to have been much addicted to the bottle.
He (Dr. Johnson) was somewhat susceptible to flattery.
A man who always connives at the faults of his children is their worst enemy.
Naples was then destitute of what are now, perhaps, its chief attractions.
The cat appears to have originated in Egypt or in the East.
Judged by its results the policy of Hastings was eminently successful.
In his work Charak often hints at the value of sweet oil.
There is still no cure for the common cold.
It was formerly supposed that malaria was due to poisonous exhalations. People who are averse to hard work, generally do not succeed in life.

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క్రింది భావములను ఉపయోగించి వాక్యములను రూపొందించండి.
Afflicted with leprosy; sanguine of success; commit to memory; specific for malaria; allowance for short weight; appropriate to the occasion; abstain from animal food; antipathy to dogs; convulsed with laughter; contrary to expectation; infested with vermin; touched with pity; subversive of discipline; beneficial to health; tantamount to a refusal; worthy of praise; beset with difficulties; accountable to God; atone-for misdeeds; addicted to opium; entitled to consideration; heedless of consequences; dear to entreaties; aptitude for business; incentive to hard work; sensitive to criticism; indifferent to praise or blame.
The following nouns take the preposition for after them. Use them in sentences: Affection, ambition, anxiety, apology, appetite, aptitude, blame, candidate, capacity, compassion, compensation, contempt, craving, desire, esteem, fitness, fondness, guarantee, leisure, liking, match, motive, need, opportunity, partiality, passion, pity, predilection, pretext, relish, remorse, reputation, surety.

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The following nouns take the preposition with after them. Use them in sentences: Acquaintance, alliance, bargain, comparison, conformity, enmity, intercourse, intimacy,
relations.

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The following nouns take the preposition of after them. Use them in sentences: Abhorrence, assurance, charge, distrust, doubt, experience, failure, observance, proof, result, want.

అభ్యాసము 74The following nouns take the preposition to after them. Use them in sentences: Access, accession, allegiance, alternative, antidote, antipathy, approach, assent, attachment, attention, concession, disgrace, dislike, encouragement, enmity, exception, incentive, indifference, invitation, key, leniency, likeness, limit, menace, obedience, objection, obstruction, opposition, postscript, preface, reference, repugnance, resemblance, sequel, submission, succession, supplement, temptation, traitor.

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The following nouns take the preposition from after them. Use them in sentences: Abstinence, cessation, deliverance, desbent, digression, escape, exemption, inference, respite.

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The following adjectives and participles take the preposition to after them. Use them in sentences:
(a) Abhorrent, acceptable, accessible, accustomed, addicted, adequate, adjacent, affectionate, agreeable, akin, alien, alive, amenable, analogous, applicable, appropriate, beneficial, callous, common, comparable, condemned.
(b) Conducive, conformable, congenial, consecrated, contrary, creditable, deaf, derogatory, detrimental, devoted, disastrous, due, entitled, equal, essential, exposed, faithful, fatal, foreign, hostile, impertinent, incidental, inclined.
(c) Indebted, indifferent, indispensable, indulgent, inimical, insensible, injured, irrelevant, favourable, hurtful, immaterial, impervious, indigenous, liable, limited, lost, loyal, material, natural, necessary.
(d) Obedient, obliged, offensive, opposite, painful, partial, peculiar, pertinent, pledged, preferable, prejudicial, prior, profitable, prone, reduced, related, relevant, repugnant, responsible, restricted, sacred, sensitive, serviceable, subject, suitable, suited, supplementary, tantamount, true.

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The following adjectives and participles take the preposition in after them. Use them in sentences:
Absorbed, abstemious, accomplished, accurate, assiduous, backward, bigoted, correct, defective, deficient, experienced, diligent, enveloped, fertile, foiled, honest, implicated, interested, involved, lax, proficient, remiss, temperate, versed.

అభ్యాసము 78

The following adjectives and participles take the preposition with after them. Use them in sentences:
Acquainted, afflicted, beset, busy, compatible, complaint, consistent, contemporary, contented. contrasted, conversant, convulsed, delighted, deluged, disgusted, drenched, endowed, fatigued, fired, gifted, infaturated, infected, infested, inspired, intimate, invested, overcome, popular, replete, satiated, satisfied, touched.

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The following adjectives and participles take the preposition of after them. Use them in sentences:
Accused, acquitted, afraid, apprehensive, apprised, assured, aware, bereft, bought, cautious, certain, characteristic, composed, confident, conscious, convicted, convinced, covetous, defrauded, deprived, desirous, destitute, devoid, diffident, distrustful, dull, easy, envious, fearful, fond, greedy, guilty, heedless, ignorant, informed, innocent, irrespective, lame, lavish, negligent, productive, proud, regardless, sanguine, sensible, sick, slow, subversive, sure, suspicious, tolerant, vain, void, weary, worthy.

| అభ్యాసము 80
The following adjectives and participles take the preposition for after them. Use them in sentences: sevitematis.
Anxious, celebrated, conspicuous, customary, designed, destined, eager, eligible, eminent, fit, good, grateful, notorious, penitent, prepared, proper, qualified, ready, sorry, sufficient, useful, zealous.

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The following verbs take the preposition to after them. Use them in sentences:
Accede, adapt, adhere, allot, allude, apologize, appoint, ascribe, aspire, assent, attain, attend, attribute, belong, conduce, conform, consent, contribute, lead, listen, object, occur, prefer, pretend, refer, revert, stoop, succumb, surrender, testify, yield.

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The following verbs take the preposition from after them. Use them in sentences: Abstain, alight, cease, debar, derive, derogate, desist, detract, deviate, differ, digress, dissent, elicit, emerge, escape, exclude, preserve, prevent, prohibit, protect, recoil, recover, refrain.

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The following verbs take the preposition with after them. Use them in sentences: Associate, bear, clash, coincide, comply, condole, cope, correspond, credit, deluge, disagree, dispense, expostulate, fill, grapple, intrigue, meddle, part, quarrel, remonstrate, side, sympathize, trifle, vie.

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The following verbs take the preposition of after them. Use them in sentences: Acquit, beware, boast, complain, despair, die, disapprove, dispose, divest, dream, heal, judge, repent,
taste.

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The following verbs take the prepositions for after them. Use them in sentences: Atone, canvass, care, clamour, feel, hope, mourn, pine, start, stipulate, sue, wish, yearn.

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The following verbs take the preposition in after them. Use them in sentences: Acquiesce, dabble, delight, employ, enlist, excel, fall, glory, increase, indulge, involve, persevere, persist.

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The following verbs take the preposition on after them. Use them in sentences:
Comment, decide, deliberate, depend, determine, dwell, embark, encroach, enlarge, impose, insist, intrude, resolve, subsist, trample.

385. కొన్ని సందర్భాలలో ఒక పదము ఒక Preposition ను తన తరువాత తీసుకొంటుంది. వేరే సందర్భములో (context) వేరే Preposition ను తన తరువాత తీసుకుంటుంది.
1. We should accommodate ourselves to circumstances.
My friend accommodated me with a loan.
I differ with you on this question.
Your car differs from mine in several respects.
I am anxious about the result.
Her parents are anxious for her safety.
He has retired from business.
He has retired into private life.
He has great influence over his disciples.
He has hardly any influence with the Vizier.
The remarks of his critics had considerable influence on his writings.
All his life he laboured for the good of humanity.
He is labouring under a misapprehension. He
laboured at his dictionary for twelve years.
Trespassers are liable to a fine of Rs. 500.
He is liable for his wife’s debts.

386 : కొన్ని సంబంధిత పదములు వివిధములైన Prepositions ను తమ తరువాత తీసుకొనును.
I acted according to his advice.
In accordance with his advice I took quinine.
She has great affection for her grandchildren.
The old lady is affectionate to all.
The flood and ebb tides alternate with each other.
The alternative to submission is death.
It is all due to his ambition for fame.
He is ambitious of fame.
He is capable of anything.
He has not the requisite capacity for this work.
He has great confidence in his assistant.
He is quite confident of success.
What a contrast to his brother!
What a contrast between them!
The present speech is mild contrasted with his past utterance on the same subject.
It is not likely to derogate from his merit.
He never said or did anything derogatory to his high position.
He is descended from a noble family.
He is a descendant of Mahatma Gandhi.

 

 

Irregular verbs : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Irregular verbs

అభ్యాసము 53
ఈ క్రింద ఇవ్వబడిన జంట వాక్యములను Participle తో జత కలుపుము.
[Examples. The magician took pity on the mouse. He turned it into a cat. = Taking pity on the mouse, the magician turned it into a cat.
The train was ready to leave the station. The people had taken their seats.
= The people having taken their seats, the train was ready to leave the station.]
1. The porter opened the gate. We entered.
2. We started early. We arrived at noon.
3. We met a man. He was carrying a log of wood.
4. The stable door was open. The horse was stolen.
5. He seized his stick. He rushed to the door.
6. The hunter took up his gun. He went out to shoot the lion.
7. A crow stole a piece of cheese. She flew to her nest to enjoy the tasty meal.
8. The wolf wished to pick a quarrel with the lamb. He said, “How dare you make the water muddy?
9. A passenger alighted from the train. He fell over a bag on the platform.
10. Manak met his brother in the street. He asked him where he was going.
11.  My sister was charmed with the silk. She bought ten yards.
12. The steamer was delayed by a storm. She came into port a day late.
13. He had resolved on a certain course. He acted with vigour.
14. He staggered back. He sank to the ground.
15. The letter was badly written. I had great difficulty in making out its contents.
16. They had no fodder, They could give the cow nothing to eat.
17. A hungry fox saw some bunches of grapes. They were hanging from a vine.
18. Cinderella hurried away with much haste. She dropped one of her little glass slippers.

Irregular Verbs Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

273. Participles లో కొన్నిసార్లు అంతర్గర్భితంగా మనస్సుకు స్ఫురించిన భావము ఉంటుంది. Participle phrase, time clause, cause clause mm, concession clause, conditional clause గా గాని మార్చుట ద్వారా participle యొక్క భావాన్ని ఇంకా తేటతెల్లముగా బయటికి By [See § 269.]
(a) Having done his lesson (= after he had done his lesson), he went out to to play cricket. Walking along the street one day (= while I was walking along the street one day) I saw a dead cobra, (b) Being overpowered (= because he was overpowered), he surrendered. Running at top speed (= because he ran at top speed), he got out of breath.
(c) Possessing all the advantages of education and wealth (= although he possessed all the advantages of education and wealth), he never made a name.
(d) Following my advice (= If you follow my advice), you will gain your object. Seven were killed, including the guard (= If the guard is included).

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

అభ్యాసము 54
Participle ను Finite Verb గా మార్చుతూ, ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములను తిరిగి వ్రాయండి.
1. Going up the stairs, the boy fell down.
2. Having lost my passport, I applied for a new one,
3. I once saw a man walking on a rope.
4. Walking on the roof, he slipped and fell.
5. Having no guide with us, we lost our way.
6. The stable door being open, the horse was stolen.
7. Being paralytic, he could not walk.
8. Hearing the noise, I woke up.
9. Caesar being murdered, the dictatorship came to an end.
10. Working all day, I was fatigued.
11. We met an old Sadhu walking to Benares.
12.Having come of age, his son entered into partnership with him.
13. Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts.
14. Walking up to the front door, I rang the bell.
15. Winter coming on, the grasshopper had no food.
16.Enchanted with the whole scene, I lingered on my voyage.
17.The enemy disputed their ground inch by inch, fighting with the fury of despair.
18. Mounting his horse, the bandit rode off.
19.The policeman, running with all his speed, was scarcely able to overtake the thief.
20.Not knowing my way, I asked a policeman.

అధ్యాయము 30

The Gerund

274. (Gerund అనగా verb ను noun గా వాడుట ) ఈ వాక్యమును చదవండి :
Reading is his favourite pastime.
Reading అను పదము Verb అయిన read నకు – ing చేర్చుట ద్వారా వచ్చింది. ఇచ్చట అది verb నకు subject గా నుండి Noun గా పనిచేయుచున్నది. ఇచ్చట “is” verb అయి ఉన్నది. కావున ఇచ్చట Reading అను పదము Verb – Noun గా మారినది. అందువలన దీనిని Gerund అని అంటారు. Gerund కు సంబంధించిన మరికొన్ని ఉదాహరణలు :-
1. Playing cards is not allowed here.
2. I like reading poetry.
3. He is fond of hoarding money.
మొదటి వాక్యములో Gerund నామవాచకము లాగానే, verb కు subject గా నున్నది. కాని verb లాగా తనకు ఒక object ను తీసుకొనుచున్నది. ఇచ్చట దానికి verb కు ఉండే లక్షణములు ఉన్నవి.
రెండవ ఉదాహరణలో Gerund పదము, noun లాగా verb నకు object (కర్మ) గా నున్నది. కాని Verb లాగా తనకు ఒక object ను తీసుకొనుచున్నది. ఈ విధముగా దానికి verb నకు ఉన్న లక్షణములు వచ్చినవి.
మూడవ వాక్యములో Gerund పదము noun లాగా preposition యొక్క ప్రభావము లోనికి వచ్చినది. ఇచ్చట కూడా అది ఒక object ను తీసుకొని verb యొక్క లక్షణములను సంతరించు కొనుచున్నది.
Noun గా పనిచేయుటలో Infinitive పదము మరియు Gerund పదము ఒకే లక్షణములు కలిగియుండును. Objective case లో నున్నపుడు మాత్రము నామవాచక పదమును govern చేయుచూ verb యొక్క లక్షయములు కలిగియుండును.
Def. (నిర్వచనం): – ఒక పదము – ing form తో అంతమగుచు Noun లక్షణములు మరిము Verb లక్షణములు కలిగి యున్నచో అట్టి దానిని Gerund అంటాము.

275. Gerund మరియు infinitive అను రెండు పదములకు నామవాచక మరియు క్రియా పదములకు ఉన్న బలము ఉన్నది. ఆ రెంటిని ఒకే పంధాలో వాడవచ్చును. కావున చాలా సందర్భములలో ఆ రెంటిని ఏ విధమైన ప్రత్యేక తేడాలు లేకుండా ఉపయోగించవచ్చును.
Teach me to swim.
Teach me swimming.
To give is better than to receive.
Giving is better than receiving.
To see is to believe.
Seeing is believing.

276. ఇచ్చట చూపబడినవి Compound Gerund forms.
I heard of his having gained a prize.
We were fatigued on account of having walked so far.
They were charged with having sheltered anarchists.
He is desirous of being praised.
Gerunds అయిన have, be అను పదములకు Past Participles కలుపుట ద్వారా పై సమ్మేళనములు ఏర్పడినవి.

277. Transitive verb నుండి పుట్టిన Gerunds కు ఈ క్రింది forms ఉంటవి :
Active
Present: loving
Passive
Present: being loved
Perfect: having loved
Perfect: having been loved

278. Gerund మరియు Present Participle రెండూ కూడా – ing తో పూర్తియగును కావున, వానిని జాగ్రత్తగా గమనించదగును.
Gerund పదమునకు Noun యొక్కయు మరియు Verb యొక్కయు బలము ఉన్నది గావున దానిని Verbal Noun అంటాము.
Present Participle పదమునకు Adjective యొక్కయు Verb యొక్కయు బలము ఉన్నది గావున అట్టి పదమును Verbal Adjective అంటాము.
Gerund యొక్క ఉదాహరణలు :-
He is fond of playing cricket.
The old man was tired of walking.
We were prevented from seeing the prisoner.
Seeing is believing.
Participle యొక్క ఉదాహరణలు:-
Playing cricket, he gained health.
Walking along the road, he noticed a dead cobra.
Seeing, he believed.

279. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యమును చదవండి :
The indiscriminate reading of novels is injurious.
Reading అను పదమును మామూలు Noun లాగా వాడినాము. “The” అను పదమును “reading” నకు ముందుగాను “of” అను పదమును దాని తరువాతను వాడినాయు. ఇది గమనించండి. ఇతర Gerund పదములను మామూలు Nouns గా వాడదగిన examples :
The making of the plan is in hand.
The time of the singing of the birds has come.
Adam consented to the eating of the fruit.
The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for the gaining of wisdom.

280. Compound nouns

walking-stick
fencing-stick,
frying-pan writing-table,
hunting-whip,
Gerunds.
walking, frying, hunting, fencing, writing 3de
They mean ‘a stick for walking,’ ‘a pan for frying,” a whip for hunting’, ‘a stick for fencing’. and ‘a table for writing’.

281. ఈ క్రింది రెండు వాక్యములను పోల్చి చూడండి :
1. I hope you will excuse my leaving early.
2. I hope you will excuse me leaving early.
మొదటి వాక్యములో Gerund నకు ముందున్న మాట possessive case (ఆస్తి ఉన్నది అని చెప్పే విభక్తి ప్రత్యయము). రెండవ వాక్యములో Gerund పదమునకు ముందున్న మాట objective case (కర్మ పదమునకు సంబంధించినవిభక్తి ప్రత్యయము) రెండు వాక్యములు కూడా ఏ దోషమూ లేకుండా ఉన్నవి. Possessive ను వాడడం Modern English లో అంత వాడుకలో లేదు. ఇతర ఉదాహరణలు :
We rejoiced at his/him being promoted.
I insist on your/you being present.
Do you mind my/me sitting here?
Ail depends on Karim’s/Karim passing the exam.
I disliked the manager’s/manager asking me personal questions.
The accident was due to the engine-driver’s/ engine-driver disregarding the signals.

Use Of The Gerund

282. Gerund, verb-noun అనగా verbal noun అని అర్ధము. కావున దానిని ఈ క్రింద చూపిన వివిధ
పద్ధతులలో వాడవచ్చును.
(1) Verb so Subject :
Seeing is believing.
Hunting deer is not allowed in this country.
(2) Transitive verb so Object :
Stop playing.
Children love making mud castles.
I like reading poetry.
He contemplated marrying his cousin.
(3) Preposition & Object m
I am tired of waiting.
He is fond of swimming.
He was punished for telling a lie.
We were prevented from seeing the prisoner..
I have an aversion to fishing.
(4) Verb
Seeing is believing.
What I most detest is smoking.
(5) సంపూర్ణ స్వేచ్ఛతో
combine su sigipina Joho privath
ood benleg s
Bob’s hoog doly
nuolo che ce gribsa
ebbe manue
Playing cards being his aversion, we did not play bridge.

అభ్యాసము 55
క్రింద ఇవ్వబడిన వాక్యములలో Participle ను కనుగొనుము. Participle అయిన ఎడల అది వర్ణించు noun ను లేక pronoun ను తెలుపుము. Gerund అయిన ఎడల అది subject లేక object లేక complement లేక preposition తర్వాత వాడబడినది అనే విషయం కూడా తెలుపును.

1. He was found fighting desperately for his life..
2. He has ruined his sight by reading small print.
3. Hearing the noise, he ran to the window.
4. We saw a clown standing on his head.
5. Asking questions is easier than answering them.
6. Waving their hats and handkerchiefs, the people cheered the king.
7. Walking on the grass is forbidden.
8. Jumping over the fence, the thief escaped.
9. The miser spends his time in hoarding money.
10. Much depends on Rama’s returning before noon.
11. Amassing wealth often ruins health.
12. I was surprised at Hari’s being absent.
13. We spent the afternoon in playing cards.
14. The miser hated spending money.
15. She was angry at Saroja trying to lie to her.
16. Praising all alike is praising none.
17. Are you afraid of his hearing you?
18. I determined to increase my salary by managing a little farm.
19. Success is not merely winning applause.
20. The year was spent in visiting our rich neighbours.
21. Singing to herself was her chief delight.
22. He preferred playing tootball to studying his lessons.
23. I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word.
24. I cannot go on doing nothing.

అధ్యాయము 31

Irregular Verbs

283. Verbs regular గానూ irregular గానూ ఉంటవి. (సక్రమ పద్ధతిలోనూ అపక్రమ పద్ధతిలోనూ)
284. Regular participle గా మారును.
verb 5 – ed చేర్చుట ద్వారా అవి past tense మరియు past
Past Participle
walked
laughed
painted
ed చేర్చి యింకొక పద్ధతిలో past tense ను past participle ను
Base Form
walk
laugh
paint
Past Tense
walked
laughed
painted

285. Irregular verbs పొందవచ్చును.
noo!
Base Form
Past Tense
sit
sat
ring
come
cut
rang came cut
Past Participle
sat
rung
come
cut
Irregular verbs లోని మూడు రకాల వైవిధ్యాన్ని మనం ఇచ్చట చూడవచ్చును :
(1) Verbs forms 23 360m od (e.g. cut – cut-cut)
(2) Verbs యొక్క మూడు forms లలోని రెండు ఒకే విధంగా నుండుట (eg. sit sat sat)
(3) Verbs forms or 65 (e.g. ring ran g – rung)

286. పైన వివరించిన మూడు విధములైన irregular verbs యొక్క పట్టీ ఈ క్రింద చూపబడినది. regular forms కూడా చూపబడినవి.

Type (1) మూడు forms ఒకే విధంగా ఉంటవి.

Base FormPast TensePast Participle
betbetbet
burstburstburst
costcostcost
cutcutcut
hithithit
hurthurthurt
letletlet
putputput
readreadread
setsetset
shutshutshut
splitsplitsplit
spreadspreadspread

Type (2) మూడింటిలో రెండు ఒకే రకంగా ఉంటవి.

Base FormPast TensePast Participle
beatbeatbeaten
becomebecamebecome
bendbentbent
bleed bledbled
breed bredbred
bringbroughtbrought
buildbuiltbuilt
burnburnt/burnedburnt/burned
buyboughtbought
catchcaughtcaught
comecamecome
creepcreptcrept
dealdealtdealt
digdugdug
dreamdreamt/dreameddreamt/dreamed
feedfedfed
feelfeltfelt
fightfoughtfought
findfoundfound
getgotgot
hanghunghung
havehadhad
hearheardheard
holdheldheld
keepkeptkept
laylaidlaid
leadtedled
leanlent/leanedlent/leaned
learnlearnt/learnedlearnt/learned
leapleapt/leapedleapt/leaped
leaveleftockleft mel co
lendlenttent
lightlitlit
loselostlost
makemademade
meanmeantmeant
meetmetmet
paypaidpaid
runranrun
saysaidsaid
sellsoldsold
sendsentsent
shineshoneshone
shootshotshot
sitsatsat
sleepsleptslept
smellsmelt/smelled.smelt/smelled
spellspeltspeit
spendspentspent
spillspilt/spilledspilt/spilled
speedspedsped
spellspelt/spelledspelt/spelled
spitspatspat
spoilspoilt/spoiledspoilt/spoiled
standstoodstood
stickstuckstuck
stingstungstung
strikestruckstruck
sweepsweptswept
swingswungswung
teachtaughttaught
telltoldtold
thinkthoughtthought
understandunderstoodunderstood
winwonwon
windwoundwound

Type (3) మూడు రకాల verbs మూడు రకాలుగా ఉంటవి.

Base FormPast TensePast Participle
bewas/werebeen
beginbeganbegun
bitebitbitten
blowblewblown
breakbrokebroken
choosechosechosen
dodiddone
drawdrewdrawn
drinkdrankdrunk
drivedrovedriven
eatateeaten
fallfellfallen
flyflewflown
forbidforbadeforbidden
forgetforgotforgotten
forgiveforgaveforgiven
freezefrozefrozen
givegavegiven
gowentgone
growgrewgrown
hidehidhidden
knowknewknown
lielaylain
mistakemistookmistaken
rideroderidden
ringrangrung
riseroserisen
seesawseen
sewsewedsewn/sewed
shakeshookshaken
showshowedshown
shrinkshrankshrunk
singsangsung
sinksanksunk
speakspokespoken
springsprangsprung
stealstolestolen
stinkstankstunk
swearsworesworn
swimswamswum
taketooktaken
teartoretorn
throwthrewthrown
wakewokewoken
wearworeworn
writewrittenwritten

287. ఈ క్రింది verb పదములకు ప్రత్యామ్నాయంగా ఒక past participle form en తో ముగుస్తూ ఉంటుంది. దీనిని adjective గానే వాడతారు.

VerbUsual Past ParticipleAdjectival Past Participle
drinkdrunkdrunken
meltmeltedmolten
proveprovedproven
shaveshavedshaven
shearshearedshorn
shrinkshrunkshrunken
sinksunksunken
strikestruckstricken

ఈ క్రింది వానిని పోల్చి చూడండి:
(a)
He has drunk liquor.
The iron has melted.
He has proved it.
He has shaved off his beard.
They have sheared the sheep.
The cloth has shrunk.
The ship has sunk.
The clock has struck five.
(b)
a drunken soldier molten iron
a proven fact
a clean-shaven lace
a shorn sheep
a shrunken head
a sunken ship
a grief-stricken widow

అభ్యాసము 56
ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలోని verb ను past tense గా మార్చుము.
1. Rama writes to his mother every week.
2. The wind blows furiously.
3. The boy stands on the burning deck.
4. The door flies open.
5. She sings sweetly.
6. The old woman sits in the sun.
7. Abdul swims very well indeed.
8. His voice shakes with emotion.
9. He drives a roaring trade.
10. He bears a grudge against his old uncle.
11. He spends his time in idleness.
12. He feels sorry for his faults.
13. A portrait of Mahatma Gandhi hangs on the wall.
14. The kite flies gaily into the air.
15. He wears away his youth in trifles.
16. What strikes me is the generosity of the offer.
17. He sows the seeds of dissension..
18. They all tell the same story.
19. He lies in order to escape punishment.
20. He comes of a good line.
21. The boy runs down the road at top speed.
22. I do it of my own free will.
23. His parents withhold their consent to the marriage.
24. I forget his name.
25. He gets along fairly well.
26. They choose Mr. Malik to be their chairman.
27. He throws cold water on my plan.
28. The child clings to her mother.
29. Judas, overwhelmed with remorse, goes and hangs himself.
30. I know him for an American.
31. He swears a solemn oath that he is innocent.
32. In a fit of rage she tears up the letter.
33. Her head sinks on her shoulder.
34. She hides her face for shame.
35. My master bids me work hard.
36. The books lie in a heap on the floor.
37. She lays her handbag on the table.

 

Essay : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Essay

An essay may be defined as an exercise in written composition expressing one’s feelings and thoughts on a given subject in a familiar informal and pleasing way. Addison’s essays are good models for students. What is said of the paragraph is substantially true of the essay which is after all a glorified kind of expansion.

1. Characteristics

N.B. What is said of the paragraph is substantially true of the essay which is after all a glorified kind of expansion.
1. Unity: (a) Of subject (One theme), (b) Of Treatment (i,e. as many paragraphs as there are ideas, besides the intro- duction and the conclusion.
2. Coherence: The first paragraph must give the purport of the whole essay; the body of the essay is to develop the theme by an ordered arrangement of the various ideas in as many paragraphs, so as to secure unity. The last paragraph is to be a sort of summing up the several ideas dealt with in the course of the essay.
3. Length: About 50 lines.
4. Style: Clear, simple, literary and dignified.
5. Language: Simple, direct, free and natural. The secret of clear writing is clear thinking. Write as you talk to a friend on the theme of the essay.
6. The personal view point: Give your opinions, otherwise the essay would be colorless: it is this feature that raises the essay to the level of art and literature.
7. Balance: The space devoted to the development of any idea should be proportionate to the importance of that idea in relation to the other ideas in the essay.
8. A good Beginning: It should arrest the reader’s attention and tell him what to expect.
9. A good Conclusion: It is to be effective and satisfying.

Note: A good essayist is more known by what he omits than what he selects.

Essay Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Good Beginnings

1. Making the first paragraph strike the key-note of the essay.
2. Laying down a Preposition: (e.g. “A man’s first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart; his next is to escape the censures of the world”). (Vide ‘Sir Roger at the Assizes by Addison).
3. A Quotation: An essay on ‘Reading Books’ may begin with a quotation from Carlyle.” All Books are properly the record of the history of past men”

Best Endings

1. Echoing from another stand- point or suggesting in another light the core of the first paragraph.
2. Making the last paragraph richly suggestive of the whole essay; (e.g. “This therefore is the praise of Shakespeare that his drama is the mirror of life, etc.,” Johnson).
3. The use of a quotation: (e.g. Addison ends his essay “Pleasures of Imagination,” with a quotation from Bacon: “Entertain studies that fill the mind with splendid and illustrious objects as histories, fables and contemplations of nature.”)
4. A postscript (an after thought) as in the case of the Essay on “Sleep” by Leigh Hunt:
Sleep is most graceful in an infant; soundest, in one who has been tired in the open air; completest, to the seaman after a hard voyage; most welcome, to the mind haunted with an idea; most touching to look at, in the parent that has wept; lightest in the playful child; proudest, in the bride adored.

B. Classification Of Essays

1. Descriptive; 2. Narrative; (a) Incidents or Accidents; (b) Historical; (c) Biographical; 3.Reflective; 4. Imaginative. III. HOW TO SET ABOUT AN ESSAY
1. Classification.
2. Scope (What exactly the subject is and what it is not). 3. Collection of Material: (Note down points, facts, ideas and illustrations, as and when they strike you without troubling yourself at this stage about their order or suitability).
4. Selection; (From what you have jotted down, select the points most suitable for your essay and cross out those which are either irrelevant or mere repetitions).
5. Making an Outline: If you go through the material collected, having definitely the subject in your mind, you should be able to write down the Main heads (say 3 to 6) under which the material can be grouped. This will ensure the unity of the essay (i,e. treatment).
6. Fill in the outline with details marked (a), (b), (c) etc. from the material collected under the various Main heads.
7. Think out a suitably effective beginning as well as a refreshingly suggestive conclusion even before you begin the essay; you will them have planned your essay. This will ensure (a) Orderliness and system (b) balance, and (c) security against repetition and digression.
8. Put in flesh and blood in the skeleton of your essay. Note: Avoid the pronouns ‘T’ and ‘You.’

A. HISTORICAL EVENT

The Battle of Plassey
Outline: (a) Introduction, (b) Causes, (c) Circumstances leading to the battle (a) Nawab evading the terms of the treaty (b) Conspriracy of the nobles (c) Clive joining the plot. (d) Battle, (a) Clive marching with an army towards Plassey, (b). Jaffar’s faithlessness to his master, (c) The Nawab’s defeat. (e) Conclusion.

The battle of Plassey though an insignificant, event in itself, formed the turning point in the history of India and led to the foundation of the British Empire.

There were two causes for the battle of Plassey. On the death of his grandfather, Ali Vardhikhan, young and impetu- ous Surajud-Doulah became the Nawab of Bengal in 1756. Soon aferwards, he made enemies of the English on the one hand and alienated the nobility of his state by his cruel ways on the other.

By his unprovoked attack on Calcutta, he invited, so to speak, the armies of the English to march against him under the command of Robert Clive. After his defeat, he was forced to grant cretain concessions to the English. But the Nawab began intriguing with the French, with a view to evading the terms of the treaty.

Now the thoroughly dissatisfied nobles plotted to de- pose the Nawab and put Mir Jaffar, one of his generals, on the gadi. Naturally, Jaffar, headed the conspiracy and got Clive to join the plot.

Aminchand, a banker, threatened to divulge the plot to the Nawab when Clive pacified him by using a forged document for the payment of twenty lakhs of rupees as hush money. Now the Nawab was taken to task by Clive for evading the terms of the the treaty and intriguing with the French.

Receiving no reply, Clive marched with a well-trained army and attacked the Forces of the Nawab at Plassey, a village ninety miles from Calcutta. The Nawab’s army under the com- mand of a trusted and experienced general, Mir Mardan in- flicted heavy casualties on the English.

But on his death, con- fusion spread among the numerous but disorganised troops of the Moghul army, and the panic-stricken Surajud-Doulah fled.

Fortune once again smiled on Clive. Mir Jaffar who was to have come to the Nawab’s help, stood aloof with a huge army under his command. Thus he was responsible for the utter defeat of the Nawab.

The victory was full of momentous consequences. This made the English the virtual rulers of Bengal. Eventually they conquered the whole of India in the course of a century. But there is a silver line in the cloud.

The Balkanised India has sice become unified and integrated under British rule, to emerge as the second biggest successful Democracy in the world.

2. Any Place Of Interest You Have Visited The Taj Mahal

Skeleton: (a) Introduction (b) The greatest tomb, (c) Description: (a) Magnitude (men, material, money and time), (b) Avenues, (c) Decoration (mosaic, pattern), (d) Indo-Persian style of architecture, (e) The Mecca of the world tourists, (d) Glory: (a) in the light of the setting sun, (b) in full moonlight (e) Conclusion.

There are examples though rare of human love tran- scending earthly limitations. They let us into the divinity of what is worldly; one such is the Taj.

It is regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It was built by the great Moghul Emperor, Shah Jahan over the grave of him beloved wife, Mumtaz. It is the finest and costliest tomb ever built on earth. The Taj is as sublime as the emperor’s love for his consort.

It is said, about 20,000 men were employed in the con- struction; it was begun in 1632 and took nearly twenty two years to complete the edifice. It cost nearly thirty lakhs of rupees in those days.

It has been built of white marble and is indeed a marvellous feat of structural engineering. The ap- proaches to the building are majectic avenues, smooth green lawns with water beds bordered on either side by flower plants of rare and different varieties.

All round, there are fountains playing in shady spots. At the centre is the mausoleum which contains the remains of the emperor, Shah Jahan and Mumtaz. The decorations on the marble walls are of the rich mosaic pattern. The Indo-Persian style of architercture of Akbar’s days was adopted in the construction of the monument.

Its main structure is characterised by elegance and grandeur rather than strength and massiveness. It is a tribute to the exquisite and unrivalled workmanship and genius of ancient Indian builders.

The artistic splendour of the whole scene testifies to the supernatural love and affection of the emperor for his beloved. The four entrances to the Taj together, have the whole Khoran inscribed on them. Verily, it is the Mecca of the world tourists and a harmonious blend of Hindu and Moslem cul- tures.

As we approach it, we are overpowered by its vastness and solemnity. The mighty and majestic dome on the main structure and the minarets, are bathed by the golden rays of the setting sun.

Gleaming in the evening sun, the silent and placid waters of the Jumna gliding past the Tomb, seem to add a dimension to its grandeur. The transparent splendour of the Taj seen in a fullmoon night is a sight for gods.

The soft and pleasant moonlight playing on the milk white marble amidst the all pervading solemn silence, symbolises the luxury of magnificence invested on it; and this reveals the resplendent glory to the Moghul court.

The Taj remains an unforgettable feast for life for the visitor’s eye, making him “wonder if earth has anything to show more fair,” and we cannot help recollecting in tranquility, Wordsworth’s experience embodied in his immortal lines: “I gazed, and gazed, but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought.” In short the Taj is happily described as tears crystallized, a poem in marble.

3. Hobbies

Analysis: (a) Introduction (b) Signification (different kinds), (c) Distinguished from Profession. (d) Distinguished from Recreation. (e) Distinguished from Entertainment or Amusement. (f) The creative element (a passion for inven- tion.) (g) Rewarding means of self-expression (h) Conclusion.

It is not everbody that has a hobby. It is a thing pursued for its own sake in all stages of life during one’s leisure. It is a rewarding means of self expression and helps make life fuller and richer.

Hobby is something that one does or a subject that one studies as an occupation for one’s leisure; hence it is a favourite engagement. There are different kinds of hobbies: painting, fishing, photography, carpentry, gardening and collection of stamps, rare flowers, old-books and curios.

Some are costly such as hunting and yachting, while some are within the reach of all. One can engage oneself in a hobby all through lite and thereby keep young in spirits and halthy even in old age.

What is hobby for one may be profession for another. A student having photography for his hobby cannot be happy unless he goes on an excursion and takes photographs of rare pieces of scenery. The idea of making money does not figure at all in the picture.

But the studio proprietor practices photography as a profession in as much as he makes living by it. True, hobbies like collecting stamps, making fancy articles, rabbit rearing, bee-keeping may turn out to be paying propositions, but that is accidental.

A hobby is to be distinguished from a recreation though both refresh mind and body. Among recreations mention may be made of participation in games and sports, swimming and boating.

But there is a radical difference in the intellectual approach: men have to seek after leisure to indulge in a recreation for relief from fatigue, while leisure induces them to the pursuit of a hobby, which makes them feel refreshed and better fir for work; this is because they feel a sense of gratification of an inner urge.

If recreation replenishes depleted energy, hobby renews life and vigor and that makes all the difference relief is the aim of a recreation, while it is a accidental in the pursuit of a hobby.

An entertainment (or amusement) can never be called a hobby, though both make one cheerful and happy by keeping the mind engaged in a pleasant way. Entertainments include going to a theatre, cinema, circus and concerts.

But there is a fundamental difference in the emotional approach. For pleasure, an amusement is indulged in, while out of pleasure, a hobby is pursued, and that makes all the difference. A hobby therefore gives a high sense of gratification that recreation or entertainment can ill afford.

Some of the discoveries and inventions are traceable to hobbies. Hobby in whose pursuit one is engrossed, forms the fulfilment of a passion for inventing things which are surely more beneficial to the world the pursuits which seem to profit man because of their direct utility.

A hobby thus affords him the reward of self-expression. In the early stages of student’s life, nothing reveals his personality so much as his hobby. This furnishes the clue in a way to the parent and the teacher for determining his career wherein his natural bent of mind finds complete expression.

Thus it is that a hobby innocent in character, pursued out of pleasure, induced by leisure and indulged in because of an inner urge for self-expression- affords intellectual and emotional gratification, revitalization of the faculties of body and mind-and contributes to the full development of one’s personality, which is the summon bonus (the be-all and end-all) of liberal education, the goal of a university.

4. Exhibitions

Outline: (a) Introduction (b) Idea of an exhibition (a) Three dimensional historical representation of evolution. (b) Museum (c) Different kinds (c) History (a) Beginning, Growth (b) Organization (d) Spirit :- (a) University (b) Re- search laboratory (e) Uses — (a) Means of advertising goods (b) Scope for starting and improving national industries. (c) Special advantages to small manufacturers and cottage industries. (f) Necessity for them (Mobile exhibitions). (g) Conclusion.

An Exhibition adds to the improvement and prosperity of nations. It is at once a Museum, a University and a Research laboratory. It is, so to speak, a three dimensional historical record of the progressive stages of achievement in a particular field.

For instance, Railway Exhibition includes the various models (pro- duced in several countries) of engines and carriages which illustrate their evolution from the time of James Watt to the present day. So an exhibition is a panorama of the continuity of progress made in the Railway.

It is in this sense that the exhi- bition is a Museum. An exhibition is an organised public show of the achievements, in Art-Science, Agriculture, Horticulture or Industry. The scope of the Industrial exhibition is wider and of greater utility and therefore commoner than other exhibi- tions.

The age of industrial exhibition began in England in 1851. Other great exhibitions followed, such as the Paris Inter- national exhibition in 1855, the Pan American Exhibition in New York in 1901.

There is a regular committee for selecting the site, getting stalls erected for the exhibits, inviting various exhibitors. Admission is by tickets. There is also a committee of Judges to award prizes and certificates of merit for the exhibits. A well organised International Exhibition, forms a milestone in the history of human advancement and contributes to world peace and happiness.

Most people attend an exhibition for diversion because novelty and variety characterize it. They wish to enjoy them- selves spending a few hours seeing the various exhibits.

But this brings their knowledge up to date in that subject, without their being conscious of it. The idea of utility if totally absent. Hence an exhibition may be justly called a University imparting Liberal education.

A visitor with an inventive and mechanical turn of mind has the best opportunity of studying the latest models and improving upon them. Thus in a certain sense an exhibition proves a laboratory and helps raise the standard of production in general.

An exhibition is the best means of advertising the goods of the participating countries or manufacturers. At each stall an expert is posted to explain the special advantages which a particular model has over others.

Nor is this all, sometimes the process of preparing a product, or the principle of working a machine is demonstrated, and specimens are freely distributed along with relative illustrated pamhlets. Prizes awarded to the best exhibits serve as an impetus to manufacturers to further improve their workmanship.

Thus the industrialist and the consumers are benefited alike. Especially countries backward in cretain industries prosper by adoping the improvements made by other nations in those industries. A country may not have an industry though rich in the concerned raw materials.

Such a country may with advantage participate particularly in Industrial exhibitions, start new industries, improve and ex- pand those that are already there. The development of the industrial potential of a country adds to its wealth and contrib- utes to the happiness of the people by raising the standard of life.

Small manufacturers and cottage industries are specially benefited by exhibitions, for they do not have the means to advertise their goods, so that most people may not know what different kinds of articles are produced and where thay are available.

The result is: industries not having a market for their goods, languish and die as a matter of course. Every nation should endeavour to popularise and par- ticipate in exhibitions, if it is to hold its own against the daily growing competition among the nations of the world.

Hence the Exhibition Trains and Exhibition Ships specially chartered for the purpose. The latest knowledge and improvements are thereby carried to the doors of the people.

Exhibitions, encyclopaedic in range, international in out look and culture, and global in dimension bring together in one place the integrated intellectual achievements of the differ- ent nations of an age.

They thus help increase the prosperity and happiness of mankind, create and improve good under- standing between the various people and pave the way for es- tablishing world peace.

5. Biography Of A Great Man

Life of Potti Sreeramulu Out line; (a) Introduction (b) Early life (birth, parentage, education) including his stay at Sabarmati Ashram (c) Village uplift, propagation of the gospel of the Charka (d) Harijan uplift (e) Pracharak of G.M.F. (f) Trials for Andhra province. (g) Fast to death. (h) Conclusion.

By self-immolation through fasting for fifty eight days, unmindful of the outcome Potti Sreeramulu dedicated his life to the formation of the Andhra Province. One wonders if earth has any sacrifice half so sublime as his to show.

The world ha so far, produced only two others who may be ranked next to him. One is Mekswine, an Irishman, who fasted to death for the freedom of his country, and the other is Janthendradas of the Pubjab who died fasting in jail under British rule.

Potti Sreeramulu was born on 16-1-1901 in Madras in a Banya family. While serving in the G.I.P. Railway, he lost his wife. So he resigned his job in 1927 and joined Gandhi’s Sabarmati Ashram to dedicate his life to the service of the country.

Astonished at his exemplary life, Gandhi remarked that if he had ten such disciples, he would win Swaraj for India in a year. Next for four years, he worked for village uplift and for one’ year he preached the gospel of the Charka with missionary zeal, going from door to door in the Nellore district.

Now he took to Harijan uplift and surpassed Gandhi in his service. By fasting on four occasions, he made Harijan temple-entry an accomplished fact and came to be called “Second Gandhi”.

Even after Independence, the laws realsting to Harijan temple-entry and untouchability remained a dead letter. He therefore fasted for their enforcement before the chief minis- ter’s office with the result he was put in jail for one month.

On coming out, he fasted for 28days at Wardha for self-purifica- tion. Moved by this, President Rajendraprasad got a directive issued to the States to observe the Harijan day.

He found that corruption infected the Congress at all levels. With a view to keeping away from politics, he worked as a Pracharak for collecting Gandhi Memorial Fund, on a monthly salary of Rs. 50/- though he was appointed on Rs. 150/- He found no response in the matter of contributions to the fund in Andhra and diagnosed the cause to be frustration following their failure to get a province for themselves. The main hurdle was the settlement of the question of Madras.

He naturally appealed to Prakasam and Ranga to fast for the formation of the Andhra Province to no purpose. So he issued a statement that he would fast to death for the forma- tion of the Andhra State, the question of Madras being settled amicably to all the minorities concerned.

The historic fast unto death began on 19-10-1952 at the residence of Maharshi Sambamurty. At the commencement he took an assurance from the Maharshi and the doctors attending upon him, that no food should be given to him by mouth or otherwise even in his unconscious state.

Even Sambamurty who had approved of his fast told him that he was entering the state from which recovery was an impossibility, meaning that he should give up the fast, when Sreeramulu signified hi surprise and smiled

Nehru’s telegram asking him to give up the fast was deservedly commented upon by Sambamurty in his remark: “Nehru wants to make us fools”.

His soul departed on the 58th day of the fast. The Centre’s decision to form the Andhra State excluding the disputed areas was received while the funeral procession was on the way.

Next morning the selfless leader, Tenneti Viswantham rightly resigned his Assembly membership. If the other Andhra Assembly members had followed in his footsteps and started agitation throughout the Andhra area, the modest dream of Sreeramulu would have been realised and his sacrifice purposeful.

Sad to say, the present truncated state of Andhra was carved without Madras being declared at least a Chief Com- missioner’s province as envisaged in the Centrally sponsored Dhar Committee report.

Potti Sreeramulu went to jail five times, fasted on five occasions and proved a truer follower of Gandhian cult than Gandhi himself in respect of the propagation of the gospel of the Charka, his service for the uplift of the Harijans and rural India, self-denial as a pracharak; finally he proved a better martyr than Christ or Gandhi, in that he dedicated his life for a noble cause by self-immolation.

If it was given to Gandhi to demonstrate the potentiali- ties of fasting, it fell to Amarajeevi Sreeramulu to purge it of its impurities and imperfections such as threat, demand, bargain and undignified compromise.

Thus the unassuming Karmayogi has given to the world the most sublime concept of martyrdom (Prayopavesam) by fasting unto death for a great cause with a smile on the lips and with no thought for the result, and he has deservedly been canonised a saint.

6. Sweet Are The Uses Of Adversity

Outline: 1) Introduction, (a) What Adversity means and implies, (b) Uses: a) Stoicism, (b)Optimisn, (c) True values of life (iv) Contrast between prospersity and adversity: a)Virtues of (temperance X fortitude); b) Reveals (vice X virtue) (c) Involves worries and dangers Xgives hope and consolation (d) Brings friends X tries friends, (e) A worldly belssing X revela- tion of God’s favour, f) Forgetful of God X mindful of God (g) Moral and spritual effect of adversity:- a) Makes martyrs, b) Renders miracles possible by elevating man to godhead.

The statement ‘Sweet are the uses of adversity’ is paradoxicl. One naturally avoids adversity if possible. Pandavas were no exception to this, and their life in exile bears ample testimony to it. But it shall presently be shown that the statement is an unqualified truth.

Adversity is a condition of suffering or a state of destitution often implying previous prosperity. The good things that belong to prosperity such as: wealth, comfort, power and position are to be wished; but the good things that belong to adversity are to be admired.

The uses of adversity are sweet and multifarious. It brings out the best in man. First, it makes one a stoic, develop- ing the virtues of patience, endurance, discipline, sacrifice and reconciliation to one’s lot in life. It never disheartens a man; on the other hand it moulds and strengthens one’s character.

Secondly, those who have been trained in the school of adversity are by far superior to those brought up in the lap luxury. They make the best of thing of as they come, look only on their bright side and become real optimists. To the senior Duke in the forest of Arden, the biting winds serve but to make him thus smile in the face of adversity:

“This is no flattery: these are consellors, That feeling persuade me what I am, Sweet are the uses of adversity.” The Duke could thus translate the stubbornness of for- tune into so quiet and so sweet a style.

Thirdly, only one who has experienced adversity has the affectionate understanding and sharing of the troubles of others. He thereby develops the virtues of sympathy and compassion and comes to have a sense of the true values of life, which go to make it complete and perfect.

The Duke reached a state wherin he could harmonise the finite in him with the infinite, when pain itself becomes à valauable asset and sorrows become transmuted into joys.

It often happens that a man in prosperity wastes his wealth in riotous living. Hence the virtue of prosperity is temperance, while the virtue of adversity is fortitude which is the more heroical of the two. Virtue in adversity is like precious spices most fragrant when they come to be crushed or in- censed.

Prosperity best brings to light vice, and adversity does best reveal impending evil, and disgust at being deprived, which poison the pleasures of prosperity. Adversity is not without radiant hopes of good, and the consolation of suffering for an ideal or conviction- which not only relieve the sadness of the unfortunate, but make them emerge better through purifi- cation.

If prosperity brings friends, adveristy tries them as nothing else does; and this is no where better exemplified than in the case of Timon of Athens who had been frequently visited by his friends in his affluence, but was deserted by them in his difficulties.

If prosperity is a worldly blessing, adversity is a greater benediction that carries with it the clearer revelation God’s favour. So adversity is an instrument in the hands of God for the moral and spiritual elevation of man.

A perfect and upright man, Job, the gretest of all the menof the cast, in the course of a single day, had his seven children killed in house collapse, and all his of the possessions either stolen or burnt up. Upon that he worshipped and said:

“Blessed be the name of God”.

Thus he stood God’s test of adversity by his unswerving retitude and unwavering confidence in God. As a result, he won God’s favour and was amply rewarded in the long run: he got back not only his children, but twice the possessions he had lost-a veritable miracle.

The coming back to life of the son of Bhadrachala Ramadas is another example in point in prosperity, one absorbed in material concerns and world by enjoyment is apt to forget God and lead a life of vice.

On the other hand adversity keeps him ever mindful of the Lord and enables him to lead a god-fearing and righteous life, against the most trying circumstances. This is what is meant by Job, when the he said to his comforters:

“Happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise not thou, the chastening of the Almighty” “Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass? Or loweth the ox over his fodder” ?

The same is the spirit undrelying Kunthi’s last request to Lord Krishna, for the visitation of affliction.

Sometimes adveristy makes martyrs. Martin Luther set himself against the potentates of Europe and had the gratification that he was sacrificing his life for a great and noble cause In the tragic hero, King Lear we behold a transition from maledictions to martyrdom.

In the immortal King Harischandra, we are instructed how unshakable faith in truthfulness, triumphing over the worst privations and afflictions, approaches to the nature of gods_ a miracle wrought by adver- sity, as the sovereign good and consummation of human nature. Thus it is that sweet are the uses of adversity which : “Finds tongues in trees, books, in the running brooks, Sermons in stones and good in everything.’

7. Libraries

To day no one needs say in despair, “Oh Friend! I know not which way I must turn for knowledge.” Libraries embody the accumulated wisdom of all peoples of all ages. Thus they become nurseries of moral and intellectual training especially to talented persons who cannot afford University Education.

There was a time when book-reading was the monopoly of the rich, and the luxury of the leisure classes. Before printing came into vogue, especially in the Medieval times the position of libraries was confined to religious orders or convents.

Books were witten by hand, mostly by the clergy, hence they were a rare and costly commodity. With the invention of printing press in the 15th century the institution of Libraries became possible for the first time. In the early stages, only kings and very rich people could own libraries. A library has come to mean a roon or building containing a collection of books or the books themselves.

There are different kinds of libraries: a circulation library is one that lends to subscibers books which may be studied at home and returned. From a lending library books may be taken out with or without payment. A free library is one that may be used by the public without payment.

Public libraries owed their existence to private charity either in the shape of books or money. Later on they were maintained by membership, subscription, supplemented by private endow- ments or donations. Now a public librarry is a non-profit one,

maintained in whole or in part by local taxation, refundable deposits being insisted upon from the members for the safety of books. Under a democracy every individual must realise his responsibilities as a citizen and exercise his rights.

Above all, the sacredness of the vote should be understood. Otherwise, elections and democracy become a mockery. For this end illit- eracy and ignorance must be wiped out on a nation wide scale, and this can be achieved by the opening of public libraries atall levels-which is therefore the condition precedent for the suc- cessful functioning of Demoracy.

Public library is one of the necessaries of life. Once Adult Education is taken up, thirst for knowledge can only be satis- fied by a net-work of public libraries. Libraries create a genuine interest in literature. Secondly, a good many do not have the means to buy books.

Though not badly of, some may not be able to buy all the books that interest or benefit them. Again it is not possible to own costly and reference books like the Encyclopaedia Britannica or Webster’s International Diction- ary which can be had generally only in public libraries.

More often than not, to a library is attached a reading room which is the best plac for quiet study. It develops the reading habit and fellow-ship among the visitors, differing in social rank, culture and age.

The library is the meeting place for the student, scholar, historian and scientist and thus it proves at once to be a school, a university and a research institute.

A library must include a section meant for children, the hope of the present and leaders of the future generation. Their association with the library in their impressionable period de- velops the reading habit and a sense of civic responsibility.

In the present set-up of the Panchayat Raj, public librar- ies have been opened at all levels- the Village Panchayat, the Zilla Parishad and the State.

Mobile libraries are provided with the help of vans for the good of people living in hamlets. The result is adult education becomes a realised fact. The need for libraries in the rural areas cannot be over emphasized.

At pre- sent 60% of the primary school students leave schools before reaching the standard of permanent literacy, with the result they lapse into illiteracy, if there were not a library in each village. Libraries are a measure of the cultural standard of nation.

As in most countries, libraries are to be attached to educational institutions. The village school is the focal point of primary education. Hence it should have a library attached to it.

Notable examples of National libraries are the British Mu- seum Library in London, the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris and Congress Library in New York.

Libraries (with the manuscripts of the clergy of the middle ages as their nuclei), once the monopoly of kings, next the luxury of the rich, have become popular after the invention of printing.

Today free libraries prove at once to be educational institutions and research laboratories. Again through a net work of free libraries opened at village level and mobile libraries, knowledge is brought to the doors of the people living in hamlets, so that they largely help make adult educa- tion a reality and contribute to the making of a nation of ideal citizens with a broad and national outlook.

8. Newspapers

The Newspaper is both a sign and a boon of civilization. It started giving only news from various places and became a force in national affairs in the 17th century and has developed into a power in shaping the destiny of nations and influencing world affairs.

The world’s first printing press invented by a German, Johannes Gutenberg in the 15 century, started the develop- ment of mass communication. The newspaper as such took its birth in Venice in the middle of the 16th century and in England, the 17th century.

In India ” The Bengal Gazette” was the first to come into being late in the 19th century after the advent of the British. The cheap news-paper for the masses developed with the installation of steam printing press early in the 19th century, soon after the coming into use of the paper- making and the linotype machines.

A newspaper is a daily or weekly which contains news- local, inland and foreign – advetisements, matters of current interest and the Editorial. As the spelling suggests the ‘NEWS’ paper gives information received from the four corners of the earth; North, East, West and South.

To get news expeditiously every newspaper will have correspondents all over the world. The news covers almost all topics of human interest so that it has an appeal to all sorts of people: young and old, high and low, lawyers, doctors, politicians, businessmen, sportsmen, students, Cine-goers, literary men, educationists and research scholars: to mention a few.

They have, for leisure hours, entertainment and recrea- tional value which consists in the news relating to sports, the screen, the theatre and the fine arts. They furnish us also with a running contemporary history which can be had nowhere else. Thus newspapers embody the continuity of many-sided progress in the country.

The more a nation is educated, the greater (is) the de- mand for newspapers; for all the educated are eager to know what is going on all the world over.

So the total circulation and the number of dailies and weeklies in a country form an index of its civilization and progress. In some of the mvanced countries there are two if not three issues a da Among the various items of the newspaper, advertising is its back-bone in as much as the income from it, all but suffices to maintain it.

This brings together the employer and the workman, the manufacturer and the market, the producer and the consumer. The Editorial is the soul of the newspaper.

It is through this the editor influences public opinion on the one hand, helps the Government to formulate sound policies on the other. He gives the correct lead to the country and shapes its destiny. This is what is meant by the proverb: “The Pen is mightier than the Sword’.

Again the newspaper acts as an effective medium for representing the grievances of the people to the Government, to get them redressed. Nor will it be less critical of the people when they make unjust demands.

There by it holds the balance even between liberty of the individual and the authority of the state and makes democracy a success. Having a share indirectly in the Government, the newspaper has come to be jocularly called the ‘fourth estate’.

Especially in an emergency or crisis, it is the press that can do signal service by helping the country to tide over it. Articles contributed by experts on various subjects such as book reviews, reader’s views and letters to the Editor- are informative, educative and illuminating.

The newspaper brings to our doors the ideas of great thinkers, the discoveries and inventions of masterminds which keep us abreast of times. What is more, they make possible the continuation of the research already made anywhere in the world.

As an example in point, it may be mentioned that the invention of the Radio by Marconi, an Italian, is the result of his reading casually (while at a way-side inn) in a magazine an article by Hertz, a German scientist.

The achievements of an age thus become consolidated and integrated through news- papers. This illustrates the truth that great inventions do not spring fully developed from the brain of one man, but on the contrary represent the researches of many men of genius generally of diferent climes and times.

There are separae magazines, each devoted to a definite purpose, such as Health, Sports, Philosophy, Science, Econom- ics, Social reform, Politics, Culture films and Medicine.

Trade and commerce, the arteries of a nation’s wealth are best fed and nourished by newspapers which give wide and effective publicity to the placs of production of various ar- ticles to facilitate purchasing on the one hand- and to the markets where those goods best sell, on the other.

Newspapers sometimes prove as evil by representing and distorting facts, aggravating communal tension and racial hatred and creating needless panic among the people and dis- affection between the government and the people.

They also demoralise people through indecent advertisements and ob- jectionable writings. Unless it be to check such unhealthy ten- dencies, newspapers should not be subjected to restrictive laws, which defeat the very purpose of the press; otherwise the freedom of the individual and democracy become a mockery.

Thus it is that newspapers, an indispensable factor in public and social life, furnish us from all parts of the world, news on a variety of topics, which helps synthesize the fruits of man’s discoveries and reasearch, and make possible inven- tions.

They enable the undeveloped and less developed coun- tries to catch up with the advanced ones. They pave the way for the formation of the World Government which establishes world peace by eliminating wars, poverty, illiteracy, hunger and disease. Hence the newspapers of a nation are at once the symbol and the expression of its progress, civilization and culture.

9. Rivers

On earth, life is made not only possible and sustainable, but rich and happy by rivers; they have tricked their way into the life and thought of man. The lessons of life we learn from rivers are so many and so varied that we may find books in running brooks.

The rivers get their water from the rains on hills (like the Godavari), snow on mountaintops (like the Ganges), underground springs (like the Jhelum) big lakes (like the Nile) and another river (like the Padma).

The place where a river takes its birth is called its source. The rivers flow into a bay, a river, a sea or a ocean. The place where a river empties (itself) is called its mouth. Before joining the sea, the river branches and forms what is called the delta.

The whole length of the river lying between the source and the mouth is called its course, which changes according to the nature of the ground through which it flows.

Man has lived on the banks of rivers, for they have served him in a thousand and one ways. They not only supply drinking water to all creatures but make life sustainable.

They provide man directly with food in the form of fish. When the river reaches the plain, it flows slowly and irrigates land and helps produce all kinds of crops which form the staple food of mankind. The rich Gangetic plain is an example in point.

The whole irrigation system is based on rivers. In flood, the river carries silt from the mountain sides and renders land alluvial by its deposits.

What is more, in its couse it is joined by tributaries which augment its waters and widen the range of its usefulness by serving it as its arteries. For instance the Godavari together with its four tributaries serves the five states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.

On the plains the river becomes navigable and forms an easy and cheap means of commerce, communication, travel and transport. The net-work of canals forming its nervous system help resolve especially the bottle necks in the transport of goods by railway and solve the problem challenging the poten- tial of present transport system.

Some river waters having hot water springs and minerals dissolved in them, have medicinal effect. Man built all his early civilization around rivers, and hence, centres of culture and places of pilgrimage lie generally on river banks. Varanasi, Allahabad, Bhadrachalam, Srisailam, and Tiruvayur may be cited as illustrations.

By constructing river projects, agricultural production and power potential can be immensely stepped up. To-day only negligible portion of river waters particularly in Andhra Pradesh is utilised, most being allowed to run to waste into the sea.

By constructing dams like the Pochampad, the colossal wastage could be stopped and thereby some millions of acres brought under cultivation. Execution of Hydro-Electric proj ects (like the one at Machkund and the other Srisailam in Andhra and Saraswathi in Karnataka) increase the power po- tential in which Andhra Pradesh is tragically deficient, with the result it remains today the most industrially backward state, though it is endowed by nature with all the necessary facilities.

Again the negative aspect of the service of dams is no less important. They avert incalculable damage caused peri- odically to life, property and crops, when they are in spate.

In flood many people die, hundreds of heads of cattle perish and serveral thousands of people are rendered homeless; commu- nications dislocated and traffic disrupted. Famine and epi- demics follow in its wake adding to the misery of the victims of flood.

The Mettur dam is among the largest multi-purpose dams in the world. It generates hydro-electric power. The reservoir, which serving as an effective check against the floods in the Kaveri, ensures regular supply of water to the vast irri- gation system in Tanjore delta.

The hydro-electric power must be fully exploted where the coal reserves are limited as in the peninsular region of India. If rivers are harnessed to capacity, they enable the coun- try to be self-suffient in respect of food and add to the nation’s wealth and help raise the standard of life and countribute to the happiness of the people.

Some rivers have significant assocations of their own, Egypt is called the gift of the Nile. The mother Ganges is sacred to the Hindus, symbolizing the civilization and spiritual heri- tage of India.

The river Jordon flows through the life and times of Jesus. The Rhine runs through European history, red with French and German blood.

The river is not merely a physical phenomenon to be turned to use. It purifies the heart and touches the soul of the person with the spiritual vision. It serves man in many ways by giving up self, prepared even for extinction; thus it teaches man to realise his soul through a series of renunciations.

In it, man feels the manifestation of the spirit of God to a pro- nounced degree and thereby achieves knowledge of the high- est order-the realisation of the infinite. Thus it is that one finds books in running brooks by acquiring knowledge, material, moral and spiritual.

A stroll by the river-side makes one recreated, refreshed and exhilarated, as it becomes alive with boats and pulsates with liveliness while passing by cities and towns.

She flows wild througth forests, roars through mountain gorges, crashes into a waterfall and finally glides over plains calmly but majestically; before she merges herself in her Lord, the Ocean, in peace and triumph, revealing the way our soul, after many trials and tribulations realises its ultimate object of perfect repose and eternal bliss in Brahma.

It embodies the spirit of selfless service (to the living in God’s creation) unparalleled in nature; a wealth of sublime beauty (rich enough for a poet like Wordsworth or Keats) to be inspired to share it with others in a poem and glorious enough for an artist like Raphael to immortalize on the canvas a mine of wisdon (vast enough for a moralist like the senior Duke to draw lessons from); and the universal spirit (divine enough for a high priest of nature like Wordsworth to sermonize).

Syntax And Other Rules : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Syntax And Other Rules

1. ఏకవచనములో నుండు ప్రతి Common noun ముందు, article తప్పక ఉపయోగించవలెను. ఉ:- ‘I saw boy’ అనకూడదు. ‘I saw a boy’ అనవలెను.
2. మనుష్యుల యొక్కయు, పట్టణముల యొక్కయు, దేశముల యొక్కయు, ఖండముల యొక్కయు పేర్లయందు article వుంచకూడదు. ఉ:- the Rama, the Bombay, the India Rama, Bombay, India అని చెప్పవలెను.
3. కర్త ఏకవచనములో ఏపురుషలో వుంటే, క్రియ కూడ ఆవచనములో ఆ పురుషలో వుండవలెను. ఉ:- ‘They is’ అనుట తప్పు. ‘They are’ అని చెప్పవలెను. lis అనుట తప్పు ‘Iam’ అని  చెప్పవలెను.
4. Simple present tense లో, third person sigular కి.S అను అక్షరము తప్పక చేర్చ వలెను. ఉ:- He go ‘The boy sit’ అనుట ‘He goes’ “The boy sits’ అని చెప్పవలెను.
5. Have అను (Auxiliary) verb తరువాత ఎప్పుడును క్రియ యొక్క Past participle రూపము తప్ప మరియే రూపమును ఉపయోగించకూడదు. ఉ:- ‘He has go’ లేక ‘He has went’ అనుట తప్పు ‘He has gone’ అని చెప్పవలెను.
6. Present participle Past participles Finite verbs **వలె వుపయోగించకూడదు.
ఉ:- going అనుట తప్పు : ‘I am going’ ‘I was going’ అని చెప్పవలెను. ‘He gone’ అనుట తప్పు : ‘He has gone ‘He went’ అని చెప్పవలెను.
7. 1) Each boy gets a different prize.
2) Every good boy_was rewarded..
Rules of sentence construction..
That form of a verb without which we cannot mak a sentence at all, is a finite verb. If there is only one verb word in a sentence, it is a finite; if there are two or more verb-words in a sentence, the first one alone is a finite and the others are not.

Syntax And Other Rules Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

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Note:- Two nouns qualified by each or every though connected by and, require a singular verb.
1. Every Printer and every Publisher is required to submit the monthly return for the paper consumed by him.
2. Every Nation and every government is engaged in an economic war.
3. You may do the sum by either * method. There are trees on either side of the road. Either pen serves the purpose.
4. Neither ** answer is correct.
-పై వాక్యములలో each, eory, either, neither -అను adjectiveచే qualify చేయబడు boy, method, side, pen, answer అను నామవాచకములు ఏ పచనములో నున్నవి ? ఏకవచనములో నున్నవి. ఈ నామవాచకములు కర్తలుగా గల gets, was, rewarded, service, is అను క్రియలు ఏ వచనములో సున్నవి ? ఏకవచనములో నున్నవి.
-కాబట్టి each, every, either, neither చే qualify చేయబడు నామవాచకములును, ఈ నామవాచకములు కర్తలుగా గల క్రియలును ఏక వచనమనులో నుండవలెను.
8.1) Each of the boys gets a different prize.
2) (a) Either of the methods is good.
(b) Either of them has permission to go.
3) Neither of the answers is correct.
పై వాక్యములలో each, either, neither అను pronouns కర్తలుగా నున్నవి. వీని క్రియలు gets, is, has ఏ పచనములో నున్నవి ? ఏకవచనములో నున్నవి.
కాబట్టి each, either, neither అను pronouns గా ఉపయోగింపబడి కర్తలుగా నున్నపుడు వాని క్రియలు ఏకవచనములో నుండవలెను మరియు ఈ pronouns కు బదులుగా వచ్చు సర్వనామములు గూడ ఏకవచనములో మండవలెను. ఉ:-
Either – One of two things or each of two things (i.e. both) Not the one nor the other two things.
Each of th boys has brought his slate, Neither of them has a cap on his head.
Note: Distributive adjectives every pronounగా ఉపయోగించపబడదు.
9. ఒక వాక్యములో as well as లేక with రెండు కర్తలను కలుపునపుడు ”క్రియ’ మొదటి కర్తను అనుసరించియుండును, ఉ:- The king with his ministers was present. Silver as well as cotton has fallen in price.
10. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a plural verb, as :-
Gold and silver are precious metals. He and I were playing.
Note: If the nouns (a) suggest one idea to the mind or (b) refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular: as :-
(a) Time and tide waits for no man. Bread and butter is his only food.
(b) The novelist and poet is dead.
The novelist and the poet are dead. (Here the repetition of the article the,. indicates two different persons).
11. Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor take a singular verb, as :-
Either the father or the son has told a lie. Neither praise nor blame seems to affect him. Neither food nor shelter is to be found there.
Note:- But when one of the subjects joined by or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural and the plural subject must be placed nearest the verb as :-
Neither the king nor his ministers want war. Either Rama or his sons are to sign his letter.
12. When two subjects joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearer, as :-
Either he or I am mistaken. Neither you nor he is mistaken.
Note:- But it is better to avoid the above construction by writing as follows:
1. (a) He is mistaken, or else I am.
(b) You are not mistaken, nor is he.
2. (a) He is not to blame, nor am I.
(b) You are to pay the fine or else he is.
13. When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb is generally singu- lar, as :-
Eighty thousand is a large sum.
Ten miles is a long distance.
14. A collective noun takes a singular verb. When the collection is thought of as one whole, (or thought as to make a unit a plural verb, when the individuals of the collection are thought of, as:-
The committee has submitted it report.
The committee are divided on one major point.
15. The rule of attraction. When the verb is so placed in the sentence as to be attached into the number and person of a noun or pronoun which is not the subject. (or have decided). e.g. (1) Each of (boys) as are willing to pay their own fares.
Note – The subject ‘each’ as 3rd person singular but the verb (are or have) is attracted to the number and person of the noun or pronoun immediately preceding as also the possessive adjective relating to each.
Ex. 40
(a) Correct the mistakes in:-
Rule 1: 1. I saw book on table. 2. Good boy minds his lesson. 3. I met lion in forest. 4. Tiger is beast of prey. 5. Mango is good fruit. 6. I saw man riding on horse. 7. Lion is wild animal. 8. Did you come in carriage. 9. There is boat under bridge. 10. Sun rises in east and sets in west. 11. Tree has fallen upon horse. 12. I saw boy in boat on river. 13. Carpenter made bench.

Rule 2: 1. The India is a very big country. 2. The Gopal went to see the Rama. 3. Last year I went to the Calcutta. 4. Last year I went to see the Bombay. 5. I live in the Kakinada. 6. The China is a fertile country. 7. The Europe is a civilised continent. 8. The Rama is a good boy.

Rule 3:- 1. You was in school yesterday. 2. The boy do not read his lesson. 3. I is a good boy. 4. Don’t he run fast? 5. He write very fast. 6. Your brother have not come. 7. On the table was two big books. 8. There is five fruits in the box. 9. The horse run fast. 10. The colour of apples are nice. 11. The number of soldiers were very great. 12. A bundle of sticks were brought. 13. A basket of flowers were sent to the king. 14. A good number of pupils has attended the private class.

Rule 4: 1. He walk slowly. 2. The cow eat grass. 3. The boy sit on the bench. 4. The moon rise in the east. 5. The boy not read well. 6. The pen do not write well. 7. The girl have no book. 8. The mother do not like the boy. 9. The horse draw the cart. 10. Do the cow eat grass?

Rule 5: 1. He has spoke to the teacher. 2. I have wrote the letter. 3. The girl have broke their slates. 4. The peon has took his pay. 5. Gopal has stole my book. 6. The peon has bring the letter. 7. He has went to Madras. 8. The axe had fell into the river. 9. He had began the work.

Rule 6: 1. He drunk the wine and fallen asleep. 2. The peon rung the bell. 3. He done the work well. 4. They going to school. 5. He run to the shop and began to buy many things. 6. The boys playing at school. 7. The men driving the sheep home. 8. The father taken the boy to school. 9. We writing a letter. 10. You telling lies.

Rule 7,8: 1. Each of the boys have taken their books. 2. Every man have brought their boxes. 3. Each of the soldiers were rewarded. 4. Every one of the letters were written by Gopal. 5. Let each boys use their own slates. 6. There are no lamps at either ends. 7. Either of the roads lead to the station. 8. Neither accusations are true. 9. Neither of them are a party to it. 10. India expects every man to do their duty. 11. Put lamps at either ends. 12. On either sides of the mountain are flower gardens. 13. Every employer and every employee are expected to work for the good of the concern. 14. Each man and women are to contribute to the war fund liberally.

Rule 9: 1. Sanskrit as well as Persian were taught there. 2. He with his children were among the first to arrive. 3. The house with its contents were insured. 4. My friends as well as I was deceived.

(b) Correct the mistakes in:-
1. Here comes the men.
2. The leaves of the tree is falling.
3. How do your new coat please you?
4. I was went to Madras a month ago.
5. You going to the college.
6. You was there yesterday.
7. He eating his food.
8. He din’t come home to-day.
9. The Scissors is sharp.
10. He used to wear a silk trousers.
11. His collection of birds are about the best.
12. We has attended the meeting.
13. Rama have no money.
14. The boy has return from Waltair.
15. The picture and the slate belongs to me.
16. Man’s happiness or misery depend upon himself.
17. The London is the biggst city in the world.
18. Not one of these five boys were present there.
19. Each of the boys wererewarded.20. Neither of the answers are right.
21. Post constables at either ends of the road.
22. I saw tiger jumping on cow.
23. A dog is the faithful animal.
24. Every one of the rules have to be obeyed.
25. The dog bite the thief.
26. The teacher expects every student to do their home work.
27. The ship with its crew were lost.
28. His father as well as his wife were dead.

Ans: 1. come 2. does 4. I went 5. are going 6. were 9. are 10. a pair of silk trousers. 11. is 12. have attended 13. has 14. has returned 16. depends 19. was rewarded 20. is 21. at their end. 23. The dog is a faithful animal. 26. to do his home work. 27. was lost 28. was dead.
(c) In each of the following sentences supply a Verb in agreement with the subject:-

1. To take pay and then not to do work-dishonest.
2. The cost of all essential goods- risen.
3. The jury-divided in their opinions.
4. The accountant and the cashier absconded.
5. The jury-unanimous in his verdict.
6. The good and useful citizen- passed away.
7. The famous juggler and the buffoon- laid up with fever.
8. The ebb and flow of the tide explained by Newton.
9. There – present Sri Ramaro, Sri Krishna and Sri Subbarao.
10. Hundred paise- euqal to one rupee.
11. Neither my friend nor I-to blame.
12. Either the clerk or the manager -done this mischief.
13. Neither the director of the Institute nor the research students – to take the credit for the invention.
14. My friend and benefactor – come.
15. Either Rama or you – guilty.
16. We are to answer for it, or else he-
17. Every boy and every girl-given a certificate of merit.
18. He is not to attend the meeting, nor-you.
19. Neither the captain nor the crew – saved. 20. No nook or corner – left unsearched.

Ans: 1. is 2. has 3. are 4. have 5. is 6. has 8. was 10. is 11. am 12. has 13. are 14. is (or has) 15. are 16. is 17. is 18. are 19. were 20. is.

Comprehension : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Comprehension

COMPREHENSION(విషయ గ్రహణము) ఒక పరిచ్ఛేదము (passage), గద్య (prose) భాగము అయియుండవచ్చును లేక పద్య (poetry) భాగము అయి యుండవచ్చును. అది పరిచితమైనది (seen) గాని, అపరిచితమైనది (unseen) గాని అయి ఎండవచ్చును. అందలి భావమును అవగాహన (understand) చేసికొనుటయే విషయ గ్రహణము (Comprehension).

పరిచ్ఛేదమందలి విషయముపై (subject matter) చిన్న చిన్న ప్రశ్నలువేసి ఆ పరిచ్ఛేదము అవగాహన (comprehend) అయినది లేనిది పరీక్షింతురు. అందలి సారాంశమును (substanc) గ్రహించుటకును, దానిపై వేయబడిన ప్రశ్నలకు తగు సమాధానములు నిచ్చుటకును ఈ దిగువ సూచనలు (instructions) ఉపకరించును.

Note (i) ప్రశ్నలు వేయుటలోను, వానికా సమాధానముల నిచ్చుటలోను గల పారిభాషిక పద్ధతి (technique) తెలిసికొనుట మిగుల అవసరము .
Note (ii) ఆ పరిచ్ఛేదములోని ప్రతి పదముయొక్క గాని, ప్రతి వాక్యము యొక్క గాని, అర్థము మనకు తెలియనవసరము లేదు; ఏలన దాని సారాంశము తెలిసిన, గద్య పరిచ్ఛేదము యొక్క సంగ్రహము (precis) గాని పద్య పరిచ్ఛేదమునందలి కథాసంగ్రహము (substance) గాని దానిలోని విషయముపై వేయబడిన ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధనములుగాని వ్రాయ వీలగును.
సారంశము సాధించుటకు కొన్ని సూచనలు ఈ దిగువ నీయబడినది.

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

1. పరిచ్ఛేదమును అమూలాగ్రముగ జాగరూకతతో చదివి దానిని సాధ్యమైనంత వరకు బోధపరచుకొనవలయును. అవసరమును బట్టి దానిని రెండు లేక మూడుసార్లు చదివి, దానియొక్క విషయశీర్షికను (theme or title or heading of the passage) నిర్ణయింపనగును.
2. ఆ శీర్షిక తట్టనపుడు పరిచ్ఛేదముపై నియబడిన ప్రశ్నలు అందలి ముఖ్యాంశములపై సూటిగా (directly) ఆధారపడి యుండును. కనుక ఇచ్చిన ప్రశ్నలన్నిటిని ఒకమారు స్థూలముగ (cursorily) చదువ వలెను..

పిమ్మట ప్రశ్నలకును పరిచ్ఛేదమునకును గల ఉభయ సామాన్య పదములు లేక పద సముదాయములు (common words or phrases) గమనించిన ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానము, పరిచ్ఛేదములో ఎచ్చట నున్నది తెలియును.

ఇట్టి ఉభయ సామాన్యములు లేనపుడు ప్రశ్నయందలి ప్రధాన పదమును గుర్తించి దానిని గురించి యోచించిన ఆ ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానముగల ఒకటి రెండు వాక్యములు పరిచ్ఛేదములో కానవచ్చును.

ప్రశ్నయందలి ఇట్టి భావస్పోరకమగు ప్రధాన పదమును Key-word, Idea-word or Functional word అందురు. ఈ key-word ను శీర్షికతో సమన్వయ పఱచిన ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానము సుబోధకమగును.

అట్లు ఏ కారణము వలననైన సుబోధకము కానిచో, పరిచ్ఛేదము స్థూలముగా చదువగా తెలియవచ్చిన అభిప్రాయములతో ఈ key- word ను జతపరచిన (relate) ఆ ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానము బోధపడి తీరును.

ఇపుడు పరిచ్చేద శీర్షికను నిర్ణయించుట సులభసాధ్యము కావున ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానములు వ్రాయుటలో ఈ శీర్షిక (title) విలువ చెప్పనలవికాదు.
ఈ శీర్షిక కూర్చుటలో వార్తాపత్రికా సంపాదకుడు బహునిపుణత గలవాడై డును. ఈ శక్తి precis వ్రాయుటలో అలవడగలదు. ప్రతి ప్రశ్నకు పైపద్ధతి నవలంభించి సమాధానములు వ్రాయవలెను.

Comprehension Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

3. ప్రశ్నాక్రమమునకు (mode of the question) అనుగుణముగా సుండునట్లు జవాబును రూపొందించవలెను.

4. ప్రశ్నకు సరిపడు సమాధానమే వ్రాయవలెను. అవసరమగు దానికంటే ఎంతమాత్రము హెచ్చుగాని తగ్గుగాని లేకుండుట (the answer must be equivalent to or commensurate with the question)

ముఖ్యవషయము. అట్లుకానిచో, ఆ సమాధానము కొట్టివేయుటయో లేక మార్కులు బహుతగ్గించి యిచ్చుటయో జరుగును; ఏలన అట్టియెడల విద్యార్థి, ప్రశ్ననుగాని పరిచ్ఛేదమునుగాని రెండింటిని గాని అర్థము చేసికొనలేదని విశదము.

5. ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానము, పరిచ్చేదమునుండి తు.చ. తప్పకుండ (verbatim) ఎత్తి వ్రాయుట మంచిదికాదు. కాని అందలి పదములు, పద సముదాయములు ధారాళముగ వాడుకొనవచ్చును. వాక్యసరళి (sentence structure) మాత్రము వీలగునంతవరకు స్వంతముగానే యుండవలెను.

ఇందులకు Transformation of sentences లోని వివిధ పద్ధతులు ఉపకరించును.

6. (a) సమాధానములు సంపూర్ణవాక్యములై సులభ శైలిలో సూటిగా నుండవలెను. కోరినపుడు మాత్రమే జవాబును ఒకమాటగనో (word) నూటం — సముదాయము (phrase) గనో వ్రాయవచ్చును.

(b) ఖాళీలను (blanks) పూర్తిచేయవలసినపుడు వానిని పూర్తిచేసి, వాక్యమంతటిని తిరిగి వ్రాయవలెను.

(C) ఇచ్చిన అసంపూర్ణవాక్యములలోని ఖాళీలను మనకు ఇచ్చిన మాటతోనో, phrase తోనో లేక clause తోనో పూరింపవలసి యుండును. అట్టి తఱి మూడు నాలుగు జవాబులు వికల్పములు (alternatives) గా brackets లో ఈయబడును. అందొకటి మాత్రమే సరియై నది అయియుండును.

అట్టి దానిని ఎన్నుకొనుటలో అర్థసమన్వయమే ప్రధాన లక్ష్యము. సరియైన దానిని ఎన్నుకొనుటలో ఒక్కొక్కప్పుడు అర్థ సమన్వయములేని వికల్పములను విసర్జించు పద్ధతియు ఉపకరించును.

7. పెనుదహరించిన 2 మొదలు 6 వరకు గల సూచనలు ప్రశ్నలకు జవాబులు వ్రాయుటకు ఉపకరించును.

8. (a) ప్రశ్నలు పరిచ్ఛేదక్రమములో (sequence of passage) లేనపుడు, పరిచ్ఛేదము బాగుగా అర్థమైనగాని, సమాధానములు వ్రాయుట కష్టము.

(b) ప్రశ్నల నివ్వకమే గద్యపరిచ్ఛేదము యొక్క సంగ్రహమును (precis, summary,gist, abridgement, epitome or substanc) వ్రాయవచ్చును. లేదా ఒక పద్యము యొక్క కథా సంగ్రహమును (substance of story) వ్రాయమన వచ్చును.

Note: అట్టి సందర్భములలో ఈ క్రింది అనుబంధ సూచనలు (sup- plemental instructions) ఉపయోగించును.

అనుబంధ సూచనలు : (Supplemental instructions)
సామాన్యముగా పరిచ్ఛేదములోని ఒక వాక్యమునందలి కాని poem లోని stanza యందలి గాని రెండు మూడు key-words (such as the verb, the subject and the object) సహాయమున దాని యర్ధమును తెలిసికొనవచ్చును.

అట్లు కానిచో దాని పూర్వపద వాక్యముల లేక stanza ల యొక్క అర్ధమునుబట్టి వాని యర్థమును తీయవచ్చును. ఇట్లు రాబట్టిన అర్థమును శీర్షికతో సమన్వయించి (relate)’ సరి చూడవచ్చును.

Precis of a passage and Substance of a poem Precis గాని Substance or story of a poem గాని వ్రాయుటలో ఈ క్రింది సూచన గమనింపనగును.
Comprehension వలె పరిచ్చేదము యొక్క శీర్షికను (theme or heading) నిర్ణయించిన పిమ్మట దానికి దగ్గర సంబంధము గల పరిచ్ఛేదములోని భావములను margin లో గుర్తించి (tick off) వానిని వరుసగా అన్వయానుగుణముగా (in a connected manner) వ్రాయగా వచ్చునది గద్య రచనకు సంగ్రహము (precis) పద్యమునకు కథ (story) యు అగును.

Example Read this passage carefully and answer in complete sentences the questions given at the end: Before the days of motor-cars and buses, no one thought of the roads as specially dangerous places. People walked, or rode on horseback, or travelled in horse-drawn carts and carriages.

Nothing went at a greater speed than a bicycle; so, very few people got knocked down or hurt. But to-day the roads which are full of motor traffic, are the most dangerous places in the world.

Many thousands of people are killed on them every year, and thousands more are injured. Sad to say, among these are large numbers of children. Every year a thousand boys and girls are killed on the roads in England.

Two thirds of the number are under seven years of age. Of course everything possible is done to preveent accidents. Parents and teachers tell children about the dangers and warn them to be careful.

But little children easily forget what they are told and step off the pavement or start to cross the road without looking to see whether anything is coming. One of the best ways to prevent children from losing their lives in the streets is to help them to form certain habits. If day after day, they do the same thing in the same way, they at last do it as a habit.
Questions:

(1) Why were roads not dangrous before the days of motor-cars?
(2) How many children under seven years of age are killed every year on the roads of England?
Pavement = The path at the out-side of the road.
(3) How do older people try to prevent children being killed?
(4) Why do they not succeed in preventing accidents ? (5) How do children form habits?

1. పై పరిచ్ఛేదమును రెండు మూడుసార్లు చదివిన మీదట ఈ దిగువ మూడు అంశములు ముఖ్యముగా కానవచ్చును

1. Roads are the most dangerous places in the world. 2. Every year a thousand boys and girls are killed on the roads. 3. One of the best ways to prevent children from losing their lives is to help them to form certain habits.

2. వీని వలన గ్రహింపతగ్గ శీర్షిక ఏది? Prevention of road accidents to children ఈ శీర్షిక తట్టలేదనుకొందము. అపుడు ఇచ్చిన ప్రశ్నలు స్థూలముగా చదివిన, వీనికిని, పరిచ్చేదనకును గల common phrase లు మఱియు ప్రశ్నలోని keywords (or key phrases), మనకు శీర్షికను స్ఫురింపజేయును.

Note : అప్పటికిని శీర్షిక తట్టకపోయినను ఆధైర్యపడనవసరము లేదు.

3. ఇపుడు ప్రశ్నలు ఒక్కొక్కటి వరుసగా గమనింపవలయును.

Q.-1. Why were roads not dangerous before the days of motor-cars?
Common phrase: Roads not dangerous before the days of motor-cars.
కావున సమాధానము పరిచ్ఛేదములోని మొదటి ఆరు పంక్తులలోని ఈ దిగువదై యుండునని తెలియవచ్చును.

Ans: Before the days of motor-cars, people walked or rode on horse back or travelled in the horse-driven carts. Nothing went at a greater speed than the bicycle; so, very few people got hurt.

Q.-2. How many children under seven years of age are killed every year on the roads of England?

Common phrase: Large numbers of children under seven years of age killed on the roads in England every year.

కావున సమాధానము 11, 12, 13 పంక్తులలో ఈ దిగువదై యుండునని తోచును

Ans: Two thirds of a thousand children under seven years of age are killed every year on the roads in England.

Q.-3. How do older people try to prevent children being killed?

ఈ ప్రశ్న పై రెండింటికన్న కష్టము కాని common words: ‘prvent’ ‘tell’ వలన దాని సమాధానము 7, 9 పంక్తులలో నుండవచ్చునని. ఊహింపనగును. ఈ విషయమును శీర్షికతో సమన్వయించిన ఈ దిగువది సమాధానమని తేలును.

Ans: Parents and teachers tell children about the dangers of motor-traffic and warn them to be careful. Thus the older people try to prevent children being killed.

Q.-4. Why do they not succeed in preventing accidents? (a) భావానుక్రమణ (sequence of ideas) ను బట్టియు,

(b) శీర్షికను బట్టియు, ఈ దిగువ సమాధానమని తేలును :
Ans: Little children forget what they are told by the older people and start to cross the road without looking to see whether anything is coming.

Q.-5. How do children form habits?

(a) Common word: ‘habit’ (b) aron: 500 by సమాధానము చివరి పంక్తిలో నుండునని విశదమగుచున్నది.

Ans: If the children are helped to observe the traffic rules in the same way, day after day, they form correct habits. Precis (about 1/2 its size) Before the days of motor-cars people never travelled at a greater speed than a bicycle: so very few got hurt.

But to-day owing to motor-traffic, in England every year many thousands of people are killed, a thousand being children mostly under seven years of age.

Parents and teachers tell the children about the dangers, but they easily forget the warning and cross the road, without looking to see whether anything is coming. To prevent acci- dents, children must be helped to form certain habits. If daily they do the same thing in the same way, they at last do it as a habit.

Precis (about 1/3 its size) Before the days of motor-cars, very few people got hurt on roads. But to-day owing to motor-traffic, every year in England a thousand children mostly under seven years of age are killed.

Typical Exercise with Model Questions

Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
A hare once met a tortoise and was rude to him. She not only boasted of her own speed in running but made fun of the slow and clumsy way in which the tortoise moved.

“Slow as I am”, said the tortoise, “I am willing to run a race with you whenever you like.” “Very well”, replied the hare, “let us start now.”
So the race began. Away they both went, the hare bounding away at great speed, and the tortoise plodding along at a slow and steady pace.

When the hare reached the middle of the course, she resolved to take a nap, thinking that if the tortoise passed her, she could easily overtake him. But she overslept herself, and when she reached the goal, she found that the tortoise had got there before her.

Questions:

1. (1) Why did the tortoise offer, to run a race with the hare?
(2) If the hare and the tortoise had been equally wise, which would have won the race?
(3) How can you say that the hare knew of its superiority?
(4) Why was the hare defeated in spite of its greater speed?
(5) When did the tortoise pass the hare?
B. Supply the proper word (from those in brackets) which makes the best ending to the sentences below:
(1) The hare was too….. (swift, lazy, confident)
(2) Th tortoise won, because he was….. (slow, diligent, steady, silent)
(3) Slow and steady….. (pays, gains, wins) the race.

Note: The above questions can be seen to be sensible and purposive in as much as they require not only an intelligent understanding of the passage but provide a real test of the condidate’s capacity to frame correct sentences.

N.B. Now-a-days, below the passage set for compre- hension, are given three or four alternatives from which the correct answer is to be chosen.

Precis (about 1/2 its size)

Once a hare made fun of the slow movement of a tortoise. Stung by it, the latter, offerd to run a race with her. There upon the race began. Bounding speedily, the hare covered half the course much in advance. So she took a nap feeling confident of easily overtaking him, if he passed her. But the tortoise had reached the goal earlier, having plodded along slowly and steadily.

Exercise

Read the following passage carefully and (a) answer in com- plete sentences the questions given at the end, (b) write their precis reducing them each into (i) half their size, (ii) a third of their size:

1. Hercules saw the sea god, Nereus, sleeping on the sea shore. He woke up the sleeper with a shout, “Nereus, you who know everything, tell me the way to the garden of the He- sprites or I will fight with you and force out the information”.

At first Nereus would not listen to the request. So Hercules leaped upon him; the sea-god and the mighty hero wrested fiercely on the lovely sand. Nereus was no match in strength to young Hercules. So he tried to win by tricks. First he changed himself into a lion hoping to frighten Hercules. But the latter was not so easily discouraged.

Then Nereus turned into a big brown bear and after that into a tiny bird that was almost too small for the large fingers of Hercules to close upon. He changed into other shapes also a snake with shining, golden eyes and even a fly which for all its quickness and tiny size could not escape Hercules.

Nereus changed himself into fire and water next, and when these too failed to discourage Hercules, the sea-god gave up the struggle and taking his- usual shape of a small, greyhaired man, he gave Hercules the information he wanted.

Questions:

1. Where did the fight take place?
2. What was the information that Hercules wanted? 3. What was the fifth shape that Nereus put on, and what was his natural form?
4. Complete the following sentence by choosing one of the words within brackets:-
Nereus was not equal to Hercules in strength; so he tried to escape by using….. (force, bribery, cunning).
5. Complet the following sentence by using one of the clauses within brackets and write out the whole sentence. Nereus took differnt forms because…..
(he wanted to amuse Hercules; he did not like his original shape; he could live longer in those shapes; he wished to frighten Hercules).
2. “Listen, my friend,” said the wolf, ‘you need not be despondent, for I have a plan to help you.

Tomorrow early the master will go with his wife to the hayfield, and they will take the child with them and leave no one in the house. They generally put the child in the shade behind th hedge. You lie down beside it as if to guard it. I will come out of the wood and steal the child, and you must spring on me as if you wanted to hurt me away.

I will let the child fall out of my mouth and you must take it back to its parents who will be lieve you have saved its life; and will be so grateful to you that there is no fear of their allowing you to be hurt. On the country, they are certain to overwhelm you with kindness in future”.

The plan met the dog’s approval and was successfully carried out. The father screamed aloud when he saw his child in the wolf’s jaws; and when old Sultan brought it back, he was rejoiced, stroked the old dog and said, “No one shall touch a hair of your head, and you shall enjoy grace and bread till the end of your days.”

To his wife he said, “Go home and cook old Sultan a tasty hash that will be no trouble to bite, and take the pillow out of my bed, so that his resting place may be comfort-able”.

Questions:

(1.) How did the wolf encourage his friend?
(2) Where would the master go and what would he take?
(3) Where would they put the child?
(4) What should the dog do?
(5) Who would steal the child?
(6) What should the dog do then?
(7) What would the wolf then do?
(8) What should be done to the child?
(9) What would the parents believe?
(10) Would the dog be hurt?
(11) Was the plan carried out?
(12) What did the father do when he saw the child in the wolf’s jaws ?
(13) Who brought it back?
(14) Who rejoiced?
(15) What did the child’s father say to the dog?
(16) What did he say to his wife?

Make precis of the following reducing them to about a third of their length. A stout old lady was walking down the middle of a street in Moscow to the great confusion of the traffic and with no small peril to herself. It was pointed out to her that the pavement was the place of foot-passengers, but she replied:

“I am going to walk where I like. We’ve got liberty now. It did not occur to the dear old lady that if liberty entitled the foot- passengers to walk down the middle of the road, it also entitled the taxi-driver to drive on the pavement and that the end of such-liberty would be universal confusion. Everybody would be getting in everybody else’s way and nobody would get anywhere.

It is good to remind ourselves of what the rule of the road means. It means that in order that the liberties of all may be preserved, the liberties of everybody must be curtailed. When the policeman, say, at Abdi’s Corner, steps into the middle of the road and puts out his hand, he is a symbol not of tyranny, but of liberty.

You may not think so. You may being in a hurry and seeing your car pulled up, feel that your liberty has been outraged. How dare this fellow interfere with your free use of the public high-way? Then, if you are a reasonable person, you will reflect that if he did not incidentally, interfere with you, he would interfere with no one and the result would be that Abdi’s Corner would be a whirlpool that you would never cross at all. (M.P. & S.S.L.C. 1961) B

Three are also many discoveries of Science which have definitely brought unhappiness into the world. That is not because the discoveries are bad but because men are using them badly.

For example consider the discovery of gunpowder and of other explosives; each more powerful than the previous one discovered. In ancient times, men could wound and kill each other only if they were near enough to strike each other with stones, arrows, spears or swords.

Even in the battles of olden times which History calls ‘great battles’ the armies on both sides usually consisted only of a few thousand men; so the number wounded and killed in the wars of those times was not very great.

In most wars the peasants went on cultivating their fields peacefully, even when the armies were fighting a few miles away. But the invention of fire arms and high explosives caused a great change. A modern machine-gun, or quick-firing gun, worked by a single man, can wound and kill hundreds of people in a few minutes.

One modern bomb can kill thousands. It is said that the latest type of atomic bomb could kill hundreds of thousands of people immediately if it was dropped in the big city. The scientists who invented these terrible weapons are not wicked men who enjoy killing.

They are people with kind hearts, like yours and mine, but they are more clever and thy earn their living by discovering new things. It is the leaders of the various nations who kill the people of other nations.

The same discoveries could be used only for useful purposes, if the leaders did not allow them to be used for killing. It is not the discoveries and inventions that are bad but the ways in which men use them. (P.U.C. Sept. 1961)

Substance of a Story Poem

Read the following poem (1) Answer in complete sentences the questions given at the end. (2) Give the story contained in it:

George Naiver

1. Men have done brave deeds,
And bards have sung them well;
I of good Georg Naiver
Now the tale will tell.
2. In Californian mountains
A hunter bold was he,
Keen his eye and sure his aim
As any you should see.
3.A little Indian boy
Followed him everywhere
Eager to share the hunter’s joy
The hunter’s meal to share
4.And when the bird or deed
Fell by the hunter’s skill,
The boy was always near
To help with right good-will
5.One day, as through the cleft
Betwen two mountains steep,
Shut in both right and left,
Their weary way they keep.

6. They see two grizzly bears,
With hunger fierce and fell
Rush at them unawares
Right down the narrow dell.
7. The boy turned with screams,
And ran with terror wild;
One of the pair of savage beasts
Pursued the shrieking child.
8. He knew one charge was all
And through the boy’s pursuing foe
He sent his only ball.
9. The other on Georg Naiver
Came on with dreadful face;
The hunter stood unarmed,
And met him face to face.
10. I say unarmed he stood;
Against those frightful paws
The rifle butt, or club of wood,
Could stand no more than straws.

11. George Naiver stood still
And looked him in the face;
The wild beast stopped amazed,
Then came with slackening pace.
12. Still firm the hunter stood
Although his heart beat high,
Again the creature stopped;
And gazed with wondering eye.
13. The hunter met his gaze,
Not yet an inch gave;
The bear turned slowly round,
And slowly moved away.
14. What thoughts were in his mind
It would be hard to spell;
What thoughts were in George Naiver
I rather guess than tell.
15.But sure that rifle’s aim
Swift choice of generous part
Showed in its passing gleam
Th depths of a brave heart.

(a) Questions:

(1) Who was George Naiver? Who was his constant follower?
(2) How did the boy help Naiver ?
(3) What happened to them one day in the valley?
(4) How did Naiver save the Indian boy?
(5) Had he any more bullets to discharge when the other bear attackd him?
(6) What did he do then ?
(7) What effect had his fearless and steady look on the animal?
(8) What were his feelings when the animal went away?
(9) What do you think of Nadeer’s action ?

పద్య పరిచ్ఛేదములో ఈయబడిన ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానములు వ్రాయుట, అందలి కథాసంగ్రహము తెలిసిన పిమ్మట అతి సులువు; కావున ఈ రెండింటికిని గూడ దిగువ సూచనలు ఈయబడినవి.

1. ఆ పరిచ్ఛేదము ఒకటి రెండుసార్లు మానసికమగ చదివిన అందలి కధాభాగములోని కొన్ని విషయములు పాడకట్టును. వాని సమన్వయము ఒక్కొక్కప్పుడు కానరాక పోవచ్చును.
2. అప్పుడు ఒక్కొక్క stanza యే తీసికొని అందలి ముఖ్యవిషయమును గ్రహించుటకు, మూడు నాలుగు మాటల అర్థములు తెలిసిన చాలు, మఱియు తఱచు, పంక్తులను గద్యరచన (prose) లోనికి మార్చిన అర్థమగును. ఇది చాల అవసరము.
3. Its Stanza Naiver’; 2nd stanza 6 bold hunter’; 3rd stanza everywhere”; 4th stanza 6 with right good-will’; 5th stanza way between two steep mountains’; 6th stanza two grizzly bears and with hunger they rush at them’; 7th stanza “The boy ran with terror, one of the beasts pursued the child’; 8th stanza 6 The hunter raids his gun and sent his only ball through the boy’s pursuing foe’; 9the stanza ‘The other came on George Naiver, the hunter stood unarmed and met him face to face’; 10th stanza 6 ‘He stood unarm against those frightful paws’; 11the stanza 5 The wild beast ‘Now I will tell the tale of good Gorge ‘In Californian mountains he was a ‘A little Indian boy followed him The boy was always near to help ‘They keep their weary They see stopped amazed and came with slackening pace’; 12th stanza Still the hunter stood firm and again the creature stopped’; 13the stanza “The bear turned round and moved slowly away’; 14th stanza 6 ‘It would be hard to tell what thoughts were in his (Nadeer’s) mind’; 15th stanza action showed the depths of a brave heart’. ‘His

Note : మఱియు 10 వ stanza లోని విషయమును పూర్తిగా వదలివేయవచ్చును. 11,12లు కూడ పాటించక పోయినను కధ అన్వయమునకు లోటురాదు.

5. పై దానిని బట్టి తెలియగా వచ్చిన కథాసంగ్రహము ఈ దిగువ యబడెను.

George Naiver was a bold hunter in Californian mountains. A little Indian boy followed him wherever he went and shared his joy and meal. When the hunter killed a bird or deer, the boy helped him.
On day they passed between two steep mountains.

Then they saw two bears, which were hungry and fierce. The beasts rushed at them. Thereupon the boy ran with wild terror, and one of the bears pursued him. At once the hunter raised his gun and sent his only ball through the bear that pursued the boy.

Soon the other bear came on George Naiver who stood unarmed, for he had no more balls to send. He therefore stood face to face with the bear. The bear first stopped but soon came nearer to him. Still the hunter stood firm but did not go back even an inch. Again the creature stopped, looked with wonder, slowly turned and moved away.

It is hard to tell the thoughts in Nadeer’s mind, but two things are clear; first he was noble, for he used his only ball to save the boy without any thought of saving his own life; secondly he had a brave heart.

Answers to Questions

(1) George Naiver was a bold hunter in Californian mountains. A little Indian boy was his constant follower.
(2) The boy followed him everywhere. When the hunter killed a bird or deer, he was always near to help him most heartily.
(3) In the valley, one day, two grizzly bears rushed at them unawares.
(4) The hunter sent his only ball through the bear that pursued the boy and thus saved him.
(5) Now he had no more bullets to discharge when the other bear attacked him.
(6) He stood firm and met him face to face and did not give way even an inch.
(7) The animal stopped amazed but soon came near. But again it stopped with wonder and slowly moved away.
(8) It is hard to tell Nadeer’s feelings, but he must have felt glad that he saved the boy.
(9) His action shows that he was brave and self-less.

Read the following poem

1) Answer in complete sentences the questions given at the end
2) Give the story contained in it: After Blenheim
It was a summer evening,
Old Kampar’s work was done, And he before his cottage door, Was sitting in the sun;
green And by him sported on the His little grandchild, Wilhelmina. She saw her brother Peterkin Roll something large and round Which he beside the rivulet
In playing there had found;
He came to ask what he had found
That was so large and smooth and round.
Old Kampar took it from the boy
Who stood expectant by;
And then the old man shook his head
And with a natural sigh,

“Tis some poor fellow’s skull”, said he “Who fell in the great victory”. “I find them in the garden, For there’s many here about; And often when I go to plough, The ploughshare turns them out! For many thousand men,” said he, “Were slain in that great victory”.

“Now tell us what ‘t was all about”, Young Peterkin, he cries; And little Wilhelmine looks up With wonder-waiting eyes; “Now tell us all about the war, And what they fought each other for”, “It was the English”, Kampar cried, “Who put the French to rout; “But what they fought each other for, I could not well make-out.

“But everybody said, “quota he, “That ‘t was a famous victory”.
My father lived at Blenheim then, You little stream hard by;
They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly;
So with his wife and child he fled,
Nor had he where to rest his head.
With fire and sword the country round
Was wasted far and wide
And many a childing mother then, And new-born baby died;
But things like that, you know, must be
At every famous victory.
“They say it was a shocking sight
After the field was won;
For many thousand bodies here Lay rotting in the sun;
But things like that, you know, must be After a famous victory.
“Great praise the Duke of Marlboro” won, And our good Prince Eugene. “Why, ‘t was a very wicked thing!” Said little Wilhelmine.
“Nay… nay… my little girl”, quoth he, “It was a famous victory”.
“And everybody praised the Duke Who this great fight did win”. “But what good came of it at last?” Quoth little Peterkin:
“Why, that I cannot tell”, said he, “But, ‘t was a famous victory”.
(Note: Blenheim = a village in Bavaria, where in 1740, the Duke of Marlborough and his ally, Prince Eugene defeated the French and the Bavarians. Ploughshare the cutting part of the plough. Where to rest his head = a shelter).

Questions:

1. Who was Caspar?
2. What was he doing one summer evening?
3. What was his grandchild Wilhelmine doing?
4. What did she see her brother, Peterkin, doing?
5. Where did be find it?
6. What did he ask his grandfather?
7. What was he old man’s reply ?
8. What did Peterkin ask him to tell him?
9. What did Kampar tell the children about the battle?
10. Did he tell the children why the battle was fought? Why?
11. How did he describe the effects of the battle?
12. What opinion did he give as regards the horrible sight?
13. What did the children think of the victory?
14. What did the old man say thereupon?
15. Which of the two was right? Why?

Writing the substance of a Reflective Poem and suggesting a title to it The following hints will be helpful:

(1) Read the passage silently and attentively at least two or three times, master the sense of the passage and then get at the central idea, which gives the clue to the title of the poem, which has to be supplied in case it is not given.
(2) Next express the thoughts directly related to the central idea in simple language, connectedly and briefly.
(3) For the sake of clearness :-
(a) the original has to be condensed, when it has repeti- tion or diffuseness or both.
(b) a little elaboration and elucidation are necessary when the original contains condensed thought, allusions or figurative language.
(c) the passa(w.ere necessary) is to be put in the prose order, removing inversions whether poetical rhetorical, and supplying all ellipses.
(d) proper quivalents in prose must be used in the case of
(a) archaic words (eg. thou art, brethren, saith, methinks, in sooth, quoth etc.,)
(b) words covered by poetic diction (eg. -lea, sere, grot, morn, ye, mead etc.,)
(c) highly poetic expressions (eg. the flower of light, the flower of chivalry, leafy luxury, branched thought, etc.,)

Example

Give the substance of the following poem and suggest a title to it:
“It is not growing like a tree
In bulk, doth Make Man better be;
Or standing long an oak, three hundred year,
To fall a log at last, dry, bald and sere?
A lily of a day
Is fairer far in May,
Although it fall and die that night; it was th plant and flower of Light. In small proportions we just beauties’ see;

But in short measures life may be perfect”.

(a)The main thoughts are
(a)The character of man is made better neither
(b)by growing in bulk nor living long.

The tiny lily is much more beautiful though it lives for a few hours. The nobility of man’s rapture is important but not his longevity. Hence “The noble nature” may be set down for the title. (ii) Meaning: A man’s character is not made better either by growing in size like an oak or by merely living for a number of years.

Thika tree grows to a huge size and lives for hundreds of years only to fall at length a bald, dry and withered log. Even so, one may live long, growing stronger in body, without becoming a whit better in character.

On the other hand a lily which lives hardly for a day in May is far more beautiful. By its radiant whiteness, lively freshness and small but perfect proportions, sheds fragrance and knowledge, beauty and joy,
on all around.

Just as true and real beauties may be seen in small objects, life may be perfect, though. simple and short-lived. Therefore what really makes man great is the practice of true nobility but not his longevity or high life or both.

Exercise

Give the substance of the following poems and suggest titles to them:
Happy the man, whose wish and care
A few paternal acres bound,
Content to breathe his native air
In his own ground.
Whose herds with milk, whose fields
with bread,
Whose flocks supply him with attire; Whose trees in summer yield him shade, In winter, fire.
Blest, who can unconcernedly find Hours, days and years slide swift away In health of body, peace of mind, Quiet by day.
Sound sleep by night; study and ease Together mixed; sweet recreation,
And innocence, which most does please With meditation.
Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me die;
Steal from the world, and not a stone Tell where I lie.

As a fond mother, when the day is o’er, Leads by the hand her little child to bed, Half willing, half reluctant to be led, And leaves his broken playthings on the floor, Still gazing at them through the open door, Nor wholly reassured and comforted By promises of others in their stead, Which though more splendid may not please him more; So Nature deals with us, and takes away Our playthings one by one and by the hand Leads us to rest so gently, that we go, Scarce knowing if we wished to go or stay, Being too full of sleep to understand. How far the unknown transcends what we know.

Conditions and Suppositions : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Conditions and Suppositions

1. The ‘If, of Open condition (i.e. condition having no implication)
e.g.: (a) If I make a promise (=whenever I make a promise) I kept it.
(b) If I made a promise (-whenever I made a promise) I keep it.
(c) If you will lead, I will follow.
పై మూడు వాక్యములలోని If clause లలోని షరతులు conditions నెరవేరును అని గాని నెరవేరవు అనిగాని మాట్లాడు నతని సూచన లేదు; కాని ఆ షరతులు నెరవేరిన యెడల principal clause లలోని ఫలితములు విధిగా జరుగును.

Conditions and Suppositions Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

‘If I make a prornise’ అను దానికి అర్ధము: “నేను వాగ్దానము చేయుట నిజమనిగాని, నిజముకాదని గానీ మాట్లాడు నతడు సూచించుట లేదు : ఇట్టి వానిని open conditional clauses అందురు.

Note: (1). (a) 6. fl-clause . principal clause కూడ simple present tense వాడబడినది. (b) లో If-clause లోను principal clause లోను కూడ simple past tense వాడబడినది. (C) లో If-clause 5% principal clause 6s వాడబడినది.

simple future tense

ఈ విషయములు పట్టి రూపమున క్రింద చూపబడినవి.

If-clause                                                                                Principal clause
(a) Simple present                                                                   Simple present
(b) Simple past                                                                        Simple past
(c) Simple future                                                                      Simple future

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Note: (2). In each of (a), (b), (c) the verbs in the Principal and Subordinate clauses are both indicative.

A few more examples:

(a) (a) If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there-Bible.
(b) If you have tears, prepare to shed them now… Shakespeare.
(c) If the ship leaves the Kakinada port at noon she passes by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3.30 p.m.
If he said so, he was wrong.
If you will be so kind as to help me, I shall be greatly obliged.
B. The ‘If of Probability (50)
e.g. If I make a promise, I shall keep it.

పై వాక్యములో If-clause లో simple present tense యును principal clause లో simple future tense యును వాడబడి యున్నవి. ఈ విషయమే పట్టి రూపమున క్రింద చూపబడెను.

If clause
Simple present
Principal clause Simple future.

Note :( (2) The verbs in the Principal and Subordinate clauses ae both Subjunctive.

A few more examples:

(a) If the patient wakes up, you will please give him coffee.
(b) If I meet him to-day, I shall recommend you to him.
(c) If the ship leaves the Kakinada port at noon she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3.30 p.m.

C. The ‘If of Certainty of a future act: e.g. If the ship is to leave the Kakinada port at noon (con- sidered future) she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3-30 p.m.

D. The ‘If’ of Chance of a future act: e.g. If the ship should leave the Kakinada port at noon (considered future) she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3-30 p.m.

E. The ‘If of Ignorance (on the part of the speaker) of the condition being a fact or not. e.g. If the ship is leaving now the Kakinada port, she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3-30 p.m. N. B. For further information see ‘Conditional Tense’ on pages 119-121.

The Paragraph : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

The Paragraph

A paragraph forms a distinct section of any piece of writing. A number of sentences make up a paragraph, and paragraphs make up a piece of composition. Each sentence deals with one thought, and each paragraph, an idea. Para-graphs are essential to divide a piece of prose into convenient units of thought so that the essay will have clearness.
A paragraph should have five qualities – Unity, Coherence, Balance, Variety arid Simplicity of style.
1. Unity: Every sentence in the paragraph must be closely connected with the central idea of the paragraph and they are therefore held together by the oneness of the purpose; and this is what is meant by Unity of a paragraph.
2. Coherence: Consists in the logical sequence of thought; this can be secured if the order of the sentences is such that the line of thought is continued from one sentence to the
next.
3. Balance: The ideas must be gradually developed avoiding repetition, but the main idea must on no account be obscured or weakenend, as the paragraph progresses. The space devoted to each sentence should be in proportion to the importance of the idea it expresses.
Note: The two most important sentences in the para- graph are the first and the last. The first should be a topical sentence (i,e. one stating the central idea of the paragraph). The sentences that follow should amplify the idea by way of elaboration or illustration. The last sentence should be an effective restatement of what is contained in the first sentence (i.c. the central idea) from a different standpoint or in another light or should be a sort of summing up of the details in the paragraph.
4. Variety: The sentences in a paragraph should differ from one another, both in the language and structure: some may be short and some, long. Brier sentences give clearness and force while long sentences give impressiveness and weight. Secondly, the paragraph may be a mixture of simple, complex and compound sentences.
5. Style: Should be simple and clear.

The Paragraph Definition And Types With Examples In Telugu

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Note:-(1) The beginner would do well to attempt general- ally short paragraphs since they make for clearness and simplicty.
(2) The test of a good paragraph is that it should be capable of being easily summarised and expressed in a word or phrase.
The following is a perfectly constructed paragraph:
There is some truth in the common saying that while dogs become attached to persons, cats are generally attached to places. A dog will follow its master anywhere, but a cat keeps to the house it is used to. Even the house changes hands, the cat will remain there, so long as it is kindly treated by the new owner. A cat does not seem to be capable of devotion often shown by a dog. It thinks most of its own comfort, and its love is only cupboard love.
Note:- Let us study the construction of the above para-“graph.
The main idea (the difference in the attachment of dogs and cats) is set forth in the first sentence (topical sentence). The next two sentences affirm the truth of the saying under two strikingly different circumstances; so these two sentences may be said to amplify the main point. The fourth sentence fur- nishes the emotional cause, while the last gives selfishness as the reason for what is stated in the first. Thus the last sentence forms the emphatic restatement of the main idea in another light-
1. Hence the coherence of the paragraph.
2. The paragraph possesses unity, for every sentence in it is closely connected with the central idea.
3.!t has also variety in as much as it is a mixture of simple, complex and compound sentences; some short and some long.
4. Balance is secured by the gradual development of the idea, avoiding repetition.
5. Lastly, the style is simple, clear, and pleasing.
Note: The following paragraph is set as an exercise for the student to establish that it is perfectly constructed:
A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can converse with a picture and find an agreeable companion in a statue. He meets with a secret refreshment in a description and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows than another does in their possession. It gives him indeed a kind of property in everything he sees and makes the rude, uncultivated parts of nature administer to his pleasures, so that he looks upon the world, as it were, in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind- Addison (The spectator)
N.B.-It cannot be sufficiently emphasized that the teacher must give good practice to pupils in paragraph writing, given an idea; one must master the art of writing a good paragraph to be able to write an essay, worth the name. What is said of a paragraph applies to an essay; in short, a paragraph is an essay in miniature. Good practice in paragraph -writing can be given by setting exercises in Expansion of an idea

Expansion Of An Idea

An exercise in Expansion appers to be opposite in nature to an exercise in precis-writing. In the latter, one is required to omit unnecessary matter and put the important thoughts re- lated to the main idea cogently. In Expansion, one is asked to supply other related thoughts in a congent manner with a view to bringing out the full implication and significance of the idea.
An exercise in Expansion is a saying, a proverb, a maxim, an adage or a trite sentiment. The length of the expansion may be about fifteen lines.
The following should be noted when attempting an expansion:-
1. Think over and grasp the precise meaning of the statement; a mistake committed here renders the performance a failure.
2. Avoid beginning the Expansion with such phrase as: “The meaning of this proverb is, “The maxim teaches us”. etc.
3. Avoid using the pronouns “I” and “you”
4. Explain by paraphrasing.
5. Prove by reason or argument.
6. The expan- sion should read as a complete piece of composition.
7. If the passage for Expansion is a metaphor, expand it into a simile and explain. Its full meaning in plain language and give reasons to support it.
8. If the sentence for Expansion is a conclusion, the steps by which the conclusion has been arrived at, are to be traced.
9. Deal with the counter proposion and its denial.
10. Give, if possible, an illustration to bring out the force of the statement to be expanded.

1.No Man Is Completely Happy

Evils that beset life on earth are so \many and so varied that one’s happiness is dependent on conditions and factors beyond one’s control. The result is: it is impossible to attaincomplete happiness. Health of mind and body is an important condition of happiness. But ill health of mental suffering of both seem to be the common lot of man-kind. Again man’s happiness greatly depends upon those whom he has to deal with daily life. Plenty does not seem to solve the problem; for the more on has, the more one desires. Alexander who con- quered the then known world wept for more worlds to con- quer. True, whoever has no wants, has contenment which leads to complete happiness. Perfect contentment ever re- mains an ideal to be realised. The sentiment of compassion in man prevents him from being happy. Buddah who could not bear to see human suffering, renounced the world and preached the gospel of universal sympathy. So life is not an unmixed joy. It is well worth considering the effect of this on life. The attendent difficulties and sufferings in life are a blessing in disguise. They help make man grow morally and spiritually, in as much as they tend constantly to remind him of God, the giver of bliss. Hence Kunthi’s last prayer to Lord Krishna for troubles in life, so that she may always think of Him.

2. Oh! It Is An Excellent Thing To Have A Giant’s Strength, But It Is Tyrannous To Use It Like A Giant.

Life on earth is not an unmixed joy; even so, all things in life have two sides, the dark and the bright. The goodness or otherwise of a thing is not inherent in it. It depends upon the use we make of it. Let us take for example the knife. It is so useful that hardly a day passes without using it; but the same knife can be used to wound or even kill others. Hence the abuse (of a thing should not make us dispense with its use. There can possibly be no two opinions with regard to one having a giant’s strenghth, for that is useful not only to himself but to others. He can do most of his things himself but to others. He can do most of his things himself, defend himself against his enemies and protect the weak and the just against the oppressor and the tyrant. He could thus do yeoman service to society. But to use the giant’s strength for doing evil is to commit the worst crime on earth. we hear tales of giants especially in middle ages, of imprisoning, tormenting and killing people. In society we come across at least a few whose wickedness is comparable to Procrastenes. This proverb, should warn us against the abuse of our strength physical, materialistic, mental or spiritual.

3. Make Hay While The Sun Shines

The work of a farmer depends almost entirely on the weather which is an uncertain factor; and he has accordingly, to make the most of his opportunities. Hay-making requires bright sun shine. So the farmer has to be on the alert to get his hay in, while the weather is favoruable, lest it should be ruined by rain and mist. In an extended sense, the difficulties of the farmer are like the difficulties of all people, no matter what their walks of life (may be). Like the weather, life and health are uncertain; opportunities rarely occur and never repeat them- selves. When an opportunity offers itself, man must seize it and use it to the best advantage. Otherwise he gets ruined like the negligent farmer whose hay is destroyed by a change in wea- hetr. The man who takes things casy, postpones till tomorrow what he should do to-day, suffers heavily like the one who does not strike while the iron is hot. It is therefore necessary to make use of favourable opportunity. While we have health and the means, against a day when we may be deprived of one or the other, or both. “There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which taken at the flood, leads on to fortune, Omitted, all the voyage of their life, Is bound in shallows and in miseries”.

4. Make Hay While The Sun Shines

It is a matter of common knowledge that a stone that has been lying long in one place exposed to rain and sun, gathers moss, while a rolling stone gathers no moss. In the same way whoever works with steadiness and perseverance in one place is likely to gather experience and prosper, while one who getting easily discontented often moves from one place to an other or changes his occupation, stands to lose and proves a failure in life. In the first place he loses the friends, good name and influence he gained and deprives himself of the benefits of service and experience he put in; in the second place, he finds it an uphill task to esablish himself half so well in the new place or in the new employment. The maxim lays emphasis on the benefits of steadiness, patience and perseverance; it must not however be supposed that it entirely forbids change of place or calling under all circumstances. When one is sure that a change will be advatageous, it is worth effecting the change. There are instances to show that such changes enabled men to make their fortune.

5. Slow And Steady Wins The Race

One of the ironies of life is: all feel the wisdom of the above saying, know the definite advantages that result from following it, but fail to benefit by putting it into practice. This has universal application. It is also observed daily that people not following this, come to grief. Nevertheless, either through idleness, overconfidence, indifference or foolishness, this maxim is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. The bad effects of not practising it are markedly seen in the case of students who generally work only by fits and starts. Just before the examination, they find to their despair and bewilderment, that they can never cover the whole course and pass the examination. The following story illustrates the truth. Once a hare jeered a tortoise for its slowness, when the latter chal- lenged the former to a running race. Upon the hare accepting the challenge, without losing a moment the tortoise began run- ning the race slowly and steadily while through over-confi- dence in its superiority or contempt for the poor pace of the tortoise, the hare had a nap for sometime somewhere in the middle of the course. To its grief, it found that the tortoise had got to the winning post earlier.

6. Men’s Evil Manners Live In Brass, Their Vir- Tues We Write In Water

The idea contained in the above passage is reflected in the following lines: “The good that men do is often interred with them While the evil they do lives after them”. It is a matter of common experience that people often for-get the good done by men and more so the men who have done it. This is surely anomalous but seems to defy analysis. Their virtues are as momentary as the letters we write in water. The result is we fail to profit by their example. The authors of the good are soon forgotten. But inexplicably enough, people re- member their evil manners, as if they were engraved in brass, never to be erased. In their talk and social intercourse, people cite instances of Ravana’s evil rather than his superhuman qualities. The reasons are not far to seek; firstly, there is more evil than good in the world; secondly, people are indelibly affected by evil. Hence man’s evil behaviour persists, while his virtues become evanescent. To counteract this unfortunate tendecy in man, statues of great men are erected in prominent places; and public constructions and institutions are named after them. Great men and their noble actions are thereby sought to be enshrined in men’s hearts for their emulation, guidance and ennoblement.

7. Prosperity Brings Friends And Adversity Tries Them

Life around us bears withness to the truth of the adage set for expansion. Man is what is essentially a self-seeker. So people seeek the friendship of the prosperous, in self-interest. They get presents now and then, monetary help and a good many material benefits. Another motive behind this is a feeling of vanity to be seen in the company of the rich and the nobilty; this may incidentally benefit them. A type of this character is immortalised in Goldsmith’s Beau Tibbs. Such people court the favour of the wealthy for thaterial gains and desert them the moment they lose their riches. Not only does the true friend not desert his benefactor, but he stands by him through thick and thin. A friend in need is a friend indeed- Thus it is, that prosperity brings friends and adversity tries them. The courti- ers and the nobles that lived with the Senior Duke in the forest of Arden, denying themselves even the basic comforts of life, are shining examples of friends that stood the test of adversity. On the other hand the friends who had frequently visited Timon of Athens in his prosperity deserted him in his difficultties.

 8. One Man’s Food Is Another Man’s Poison.

What is good for one need not be good for another or may sometimes be injurious. The spirit of the saying is reflected in the line-As many men, so many minds. There is an infinite variety of man’s tastes in respect of choice of books, dress, sports, religion, and even the aim of life. The food and dress of Europeans won’t suit the people of eastern countries. The for- mer living in cold countries, require more stimulating food and warmer clothing. Milk which is considered an deal and com- plete food does not agree with the constitution of some. What is true of individuals is true of races and nations. Some Hindus I eat boiled pork, whereas the Muslims abhor it. The French man’s taste for frogs seems horrible to the Englishman. There is no disputing about tastes which are highly individualistic and varied. For the matter of that, every man has his own favourite fruit and drink. In proof of the truth of the saying may be cited the examples of the Roman Catholics and the Puritans in the matter of religous faiths; the Mammon worshipper and the aspirant for God’s grace, in respect of outlook on life. It is therefore best to judge whether a particular thing is suitable for us or not. Only when it does us god, we are to adopt it.

9. Strike While The Iron Is Hot.

 

Everything has to be done at the proper time. This maxim involves two factors choosing the most suitable time and acting promptly to win an advantage. While the iron is in the furnace, only when it is heated to a particualr temperature, it can be beaten into the required shape; the right moment is to be chosen to hammer the iron. In the same way, for raising good crops, sowing, planting and harvesting should be done at the right time; otherwise the crops fail. The stem of a plant can be bent in the way we want, only when it is tender but not after it grows into a tree. To implant ideas of right and wrong, to inculcate good behaviour and help form good habits in one, it is the business of the parent to choose as most suitable, one’s early life(i.e. childhood) which is the formative period of a person’s life.

Anomalous Verbs : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Anomalous Verbs

Introduction

The best way to learn a foreign language is to live in that country for sometime. In that case it can be learnt with more or less, as much ease as the mother-tongue; for one cannot help talking in that language to the people around for a major portion of the day. Conversation is made up of mainly ques- tions and answers. Hence it is: Interrogative, Negative and Affirmative sentences constitute the tissue of conversation.The Direct method of teaching as conceived and worked out in their Readers by Yates and Guttenberg, is based on this principle.

The chief types of sentences – Interrogative, Negaitive, Emphatic affirmative – are formed by only 24 finite verbs (or simply 24 finites) in English; hence the necessity of studying these 24 finites. While there are thousands of finites, 24 form a group by themselves and there is not a 25th of their kind, and that is the peculiarity of English. The syntax of these differs from that of the thousands of the verbs. This is, these 24 are not like the other verbs, hence they are called Anomalous finites. For one reason or other they cannot be given any one of the following names: weak, strong, regular, defective or auxiliary.

The following are the 24 finites: -am, is, was, are, were, have, has, had, do, does, did, can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, dare, must, need, ought, used.
These are derived from the following 12 anomalous. verbs- be, have, do, can, may, shall, will, dare, must, need, ought, used.
By this classification, it becomes surprisingly simpler to give useful syntactical information. How otherwise could the difference betwen (a) “have you”, and “do you have” (b) “need he” and “does he need” be shown clearly? This is clarified in the body of this article. The Grammar mechanism of Affirma- tive, Negative and Interrogative cannot be explained without reference to the 24 finites.

Anomalous Verbs Definition And Types with Examples In Telugu

These 24 finites occur (actually or potentially) in every sentence, but they are the despair of the student of English in earlier (and even in the later) stages. So, if the pupil in the early stages is enabled to use most of these in his conversation, he learns to speak and converse in English with others in the shortest time possible and with great ease in as much as these 24 finites not only provide the basis, but form the fabric of daily conversation. The table on page 127 shows the finites and non-finites of (a) Anomalous (b) Non-anomalous verbs, eat having been taken as a representative of the thousands of Non-anomalous verbs(i.e other verbs).

Functions of Anomalous finites

The 24 finites have mainly three functions. 1 Their first function, as structural words is to form Negative, Interrogative and Emphatic affirmative sentences. When they are used as structural words in ‘syntax’ (-sentence building) all the 24 finites are Anomalous.
They affect (1) the position of adverbs of frequency (2) help secure emphasis (a) on the negative idea in a sentence (b) on an Adjective or Adverb in a sentence.
Above all, they are needed to avoid unnecessary repetition of verbs, especially in conversation. A few of them get contracted when they are merged with (i) pronouns (ii) the introductory adverb “there” and (c) nouns.
1. (a) Th 24 finites alone can take not after them to form negative sentences.
1. Be is, am, are, was, were

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

AnomalousAnomalousOther verbs (Non-anomalous) — Thousands
Verbs (12)Finitcs (24)Finitcs (3)Non-finites (8)
1.    Be

2.    Can

3.    Do

4.    Have

5.    May

6.    Shall

7.    Will

8.    Dare

9.    Must

10.    Need

11. Ought

12.    Used

is, am, are,
was, were    5can, could    2Do, does, did    3Have, has, had,            3May, might       2

Shall, should    2

Will, would   2Dare    1

Must    1

Need    1

Ought    1

Used    1

1. Eat (1, we, you or they)

2. Eats (He, she orit)

3.  Ate (1, we, you, he, she, it or

they)

NoteSimple past tense forms
of all verbs except one, do not change
for NumbcrorPerson.

This is one of the reasons why the
English verb is easy.

Theexception isthe verb’tobe’, which
has two forms for the simple past:
Was (for Singular) and Were (for
Plural)

Was (He, she, it. orl)

Were (we, you, or they)

1. Present Participle (I am eating)

2. Past Participle (1 have eaten)

3.Perfect, Participle (I laving eaten six
plantains, 1 do not feel hungry).

4    Fused participle (1 object to Rama rat¬
ing platains).

5    Simple infinitive (I want to mi apples).

6.    Perfect infin. (You ought to have eaten
your food two hours ago).

7.    Gerund <1 am fond of eating apples).

8.    Verba! noun (The eating of fruit im¬
proves health)

 

AffirmativeNegativeMerged
He is tall.He is not tall.He isn’t tall
I do go.I do not go.I don’t go.
I will go.I will not go.I won’t go.
I shall go.I shall not go.I shalln’t go.
I can go.can not go.1 cann’t go.
She used to grumble.She used not to grumble.She usedn’t to grumble.
…………………..You need not goYou needn’t go.
H dares to goHe dare not goHe daren’t go.
She has gone.She has not gone.She hasn’t gone.
I may be going.I may not be going.I mayn’t be going

1-(b) The other verbs cannot take negative sentences:-
e.g. “I eat not apples”. – Wrong.
2-(a) finitesnegative sentencesలో వచ్చు not ఆ finites తో merge అగును. (అనగా పై 3 వ వరుసలో వలె) కలిసిపోవును.
(b) verb not merge
3 -(a) The 24 finites alone change places with the subject to form interrogative sentences:-

AffirmativeInterrogative
He is tall.Is he tall?
I do go.Do I go?
She used to grumbleUsed she to grumble?
He dares to enter the room.Dare he enter the room?

III- (b) The other verbs cannot chang places with the
subject to form interrogative sentences:
e.g.  “Eat I apples” ?- Wrong.
Note: If the main verb in a sentence is not one of the 24 tinites or does not contain one of them, the simple tense must be replaced by the corresponding compound (emphatic form of the verb containing do, does, or did, but these three are members of the 24 finites. So the procedure in I-(a) and II-(a) may therefore be adopted for transformation of sentences into Negative and Interrogative.
Emphatic

AffirmativeNeg. and Interr.
1. I eat it.I do eat it.Neg. I do not eat it Interr. – Do I eat it?.
2. He eats it.He does eat itNeg. – He does not eat it? Interr. Does he eat it?
3. I did it.I did do it.Neg. – I did not do it? Interr. – Did I do it?

Note: Do exercises 35 & 35 A
4. Adverbs of frequency (such as:- always, sometimes, often, frequently, ever, generally, rarely, usually, seldom, hardly, scarcely) are always put after the 24 finites but before all other verbs.
1. (a) I am always busy (b) He could never equal me.
2. (a) He always lies. (b) He never failed.
Note: Rule 4 is to be reversed when the A. F. is to be emphasied; as: He never could equal me.
5-(a) In the case of the 24 finites, we may emphasize the affirmative element in a sentence by using a strong stress on the finite (i.e. by means of intonation) as :- I can find time.
5-(b) But in the case of other verbs, we may emphasize the affirmative element in a sentence by using the forms do, does or did, as indicated under Emphatic Form of verbs; as :Emphatic – I do find time.
5-(c) Special emphasis is put on :-
(1) The negative idea in a sentence by placing the negative at the beginning of the sentence, the affirmative form of the verb being changed into the interrogative without the question mark at the end; as: 1. No sooner did he hear the news than he jumped for joy. 2. In no other way can I explain it.
(2) An adjective or an adverb by placing so at the beginning of the sentence followed by the said adjective or adverb, the affirmative form of the verb being changed into the interrogative without the question mark at the end; as:- (1) So fond was he of Tennis (or so much did he like (Tennis) that he used to play Tennis every day.
6. The 24 finites are also used in conversation to avoid unnecessary repetition.

(a) As a substitute verb:
1. Ought he pay fine? Yes he ought.
2. He eats more than you do.
3. You must go there. Must I?
(b) In short answers to questions (requiring Yes or No)
1. Did your brother pass the examination?
Yes, he did or No, he didn’t.
2. Can you lend me five fupees?
Yes, I can or No, I can’t.
(c) In short answers to subject questions:
1. Which of you will help me? Rama will.
2. How much of it was used? Half of it was.
3. Who discovered America? Columbus did.
(d) In question tags (which invariably contain one or other of 24 finites:
1. Rama went to Tuni, didn’t he?
2. You need not go, need you?
3. There has been heavy rain lately, hasn’t there?
4. Meet me to-morrow, will you?
5. Sita will meet me, won’t she?
(e) In declaring what is true of one person or thing is equally true of another person or thing:
1. I can go there.                                      I can go there and
2. You also can go there.                          so can you.
1. I saw the aeroplane.                              I saw the aeroplane,
2. My frien also saw the aeroplane          so did my friend.
N. B So is placed before the second part of the statement changed into the interrogative form (but without the question mark at the end).
(f) In declaring what is untrue of one person or thing is equally untrue of another person or thing:
1. I cannot go there.                                              I cannot go there nor
2. You cannot go there, either.                             (or neither) can you.
1. I didn’t see the aroplane.                                  I didn’t see the aeroplane nor (or neither)
2. My friend didn’t see the aeroplane, either.      did my friend.
Note: Nor (or either) is placed before the second part of the statement changed into the interrogative form (but with- out the question mark ? at the end).
(g) In recognising to be true what we hear :
“I saw you at the Post Office this morning,” A said to B. B replied, “Yes you did”. N.B- In the answer, yes is followed by. a pronoun and one of the 24 finites.
(h) In recognising to be untrue what we hear:
“I saw you at the Post Offic this morning” – No you didn’t. No is followed by a pronoun and an A. F.
((a) In correcting a suggestion (which is in the form of a question that is false), the A. F. is stressed onA
1. Why did you hit that child?
2. Why didn’t you come and see me yesterday?
But, I didn’t (you were misinformed). gibicos
But I did (and you were not at home).
N.B. The answer begins with but followed by a pronoun and then by a negative or affirmative A. F. according as the “why” question is a simple interrogative as in 1. or a negative interrogative as in 2.A few of the 24 A. F. are shortened with (a) Pronouns, (b) the Indroductory adverb ‘there’ and (c) Nouns; as-1: a) It’s (It is); Who’s (Who is); What’s (What is) He’s (He is) bleeding; He’s (He has) got a scar on his cheek; I’m (I am); I’d (I had) fever last night.
I’d (would) like to tell you a secret; Ill ( I will); I’ve (I have); You’are (You are); (b) There’s (There is); (c) The sun’s (sun is) about to come out soon.
Note: The acid test of one of the 24 finites being used as an Anomalous verb lies :-
(a) in its taking a not after it to form the negative (b) in changing places with the subject to form the interrogative; so it is Non-anomalous when conjugated with the auxiliary verb do to form the negative and the interrogative.
The second function of the finites is to form :-
(a) Compoound tenses: (a) continuous (b) perfect (c) emphatic affirmative with do, does and did forms)
(a) Passive voice :
The following fourteen (14) finites are used as (i) Anomalous and Non-anomalous (ii). some being used as auxiliary verbs only, while some others, as full verbs only, according to usage and meaning.
(A)-IS, AM, ARE, WERE, WAS,

1. Anamalous

(a) as auxiliary verbs to form :-
1. Continuous tenses with present participles; as :- He is reading a novel.
2. Perfect tense (archaic) with past participles of about twelve intransitive verbs to express a completed action result- ing in a change of (a) place or (b) condition or (c) both; as:
(a) They are gone to the market to buy food. He is come for the marriage. We are met (gathered or assembled)- to cele- brate the death anniversary of Potti Sreeramulu.
(b) The mighty are fallen on the bloody field. Jesus Christ is risen from the dead. How tall he is grown in a year! When the sun is set, it will be cooler. Are men descended from apes?
(c) The Chief Minister is returned sick from Delhi.
Note: The above sentences are not in the passive voice, though in each, the part of the verb be is folowed by a past participle; for the verbs are intransitive. So these verbs are in the perfect tense (archaic) and in the active voice.
3. Passive voice with past participles of transitive verbs as:- The tiger was killed.
(b) as full Verbs :-
1. Of incomplete predication:- He is brave.
2. Of complete predication with different meanings; as :- God is everywhere (exists). When will the wedding be (taken place)? You are to start now (must). I am to see him to- morrow (=it has been arranged that I shall). He has been to England three times (visited). What are you going to be when you grow up (become)?
2. NON-ANOMALOUS: to form (a) Negative Inter- rogative Why don’t you be more reasonable? (b) Imperative – Don’t be so curious.
(B) HAVE, HAS, HAD
(a) as auxiliary verb to form :-
Perfect tenses; as: (a) I have worked the whole day. (b) as full verbs meaning “possession” with different signification; as :-
1. Simple possession:- Birds have wings. I have a dislike for cigars.
2. Be the owner of material things:
(a) Has he a house of his own?
Colloq-He has got a house of his own.
(b) How much money have you?
Colloq- How much money have you got?
3. Physical and mental characteristic:
(a) Has she blue or brown eyes? Colloq-She has got blue yes.
(b) I haven’t a very good memory?
Colloq-I haven’t got very good memory.
4. Expressing relationship:- Have they any children? Colioq- How many children have they got?
5. With the meaning ‘Is (are) there’:- How many days has January? Have we any coffee in the house? Rumour has it that our school has won the foot-ball match.
6. With the meaning “if” :- Had we wings like birds, we should not need aeroplanes.

2. Non-Anomalous

(a) When did you have your shoes mended? (causative)
(b) (i) He had his leg broken. (suffering)
(b) I did not have much difficulty in
finding your house. (trouble)
(c) Did you have a (pleasant) (walk or journey); sound sleep; good time
(c) (i) How often do you have letter from your son?
(receive)
(b) Do you have a bath now? (take)
(Experi- ences)
(3) (joy) Various
(c) Does your teacher always have notes mean- for English lesson (use)
(d) At what time do you have dinner? (eat) (e) Do you have coffee or tea for you- breakfast? (drink)
(f) Will you have a cigarette ? (smoke) ings(6)

3. (a) Anomalous And (b) Non-Anomalous

(Combined) According to the nature of the activity (denoted by the verb) being 1. (a) particular occasion or (b) general. 2. (a) a necessity in the immediate future or (b)’a regular necessity starting in the past.
1. Anomalous – Have you a cold now? (particular occasion) Non-Anomalous:- Do you often have cold? (general)
2. Anomalous: Have you to attend office an hour earlier than usual this morning.
Non- Anomalous :- At what time do you have to attend office every morning?
Necessity applying to an activity in the immediate future. Necessity applying to a regular activity starting in the past.
Note: (a) With reference to the sentences: “I have to do this” and “I had to do this” (i.e. without Neg. Interr. or Em- phatic), we cannot say whether the verbs in those sentences are Anomalous or Non-anomalous.
Note:- (b) Must has only present tense, so the sense of the other tenses is expressed by the tenses of the verb have: as:-
Present
I must start at once.
I have to start at once.
I shall have to start soon.

Future
When the bell rings, I must go. Past
When the bell rang, I had to go.

(C) DO, DOES, DID
1. ANOMALOUS = as Auxiliary verbs only to form :-
(a) Neg: He did not work hard?
(b) Interr:- Does he work hard?
(c) Emphatic affirm:- He did not say much, but what he did say was important.
2. NON-ANOMALOUS:
(with the meaning “perform”) as – he did not do the whole work.
Note: In this case the verbs do, does, did are themselves conjugated in the Neg. & Interr. with the auxiliary do.
(D) USED (to) (Full verb)
Used, pronounced (“you;st”) derived from an obsolete verb and used only in the simple past (for expressing only things of the past time), is followed by to and an infinitive.
1. Anomalous; as :-
(a) He used n’t to smoke a cigar before marriage (habit)
(b) Used he to visit you regularly last year? (repeated action).
(c) The Hindu Kings used to be crowned in Delhi (custom). (iv) Life is not so cheap as it used to be ( state existing in the past). (v) It used to be thought (i.e. people thought) that the sun turned round the earth (motion). (vi) There used to be cinema in this street (there was).
2. Non-Anomalous in:-
(a) Colloquial style; as :-
(Did he use to visit you regularly last year?)
(b) Tag-questions; as :-
He used to smoke before marriage, didn’t he?
(or use (d) n’t he?)
(c) Responses; as :-
A:- Rama used to live in Hyderaba.
B: Oh, did he ? (or, Oh, used he ?)
N.B: In the following used (pronounced: you : st) is a past participle meaning “accustomed to” or familiar “with” as:- (i) Soldiers are used to danger. (ii) I am not used to (hard labour) carrying logs of wood. (iii) You will soon get used to our ways.
Note: There is altogether another verb use (=make use of) whose past tense is used (pronounced Yu: zd).
This is a regular verb; as :-
What kind of wood did he use for windows? (E) DARE (Full verb)
1. ANOMALOUS AND NON-ANOMALOUS
With the same meaning “have the courage or impudence enough to do something”;
Anomalous
1. Neg. He dare not jump across the stream.
Non-anomalous
1. Neg. He does not dare to
jump across the stream.

Anomalous Verbs

2. Interr-Dare he jump across the stream?
3. Conditional sentence  do not know if he dares jump across the stream.
Note Dare is used only in the simple present with a bare infinitive without s in the 3rd Pers. Singular Present tense.
2. Interr.- Does he dare to Jump across the stream?
3. Semi Neg.- He hardly dares to speak in my presence.
4. Indirect question – I wonder how he dared to insult me.
5. Affirmative-He dares to insult me.
Note Here dare is used as a
regular verb with a to infinitive ands in the 3rd Person in Singular Present tense.
2. NON-ANOMALOUS: Regular verb (meaning challenge or face); as :-
He dares Rama to jump across the stream (challenge). He dared many dangers (faced).
(F) NEED (Full verb)

1. ANOMALOUS (with the meaning “to be under the necessity to do something”).
It is used only in the Simple present with a bare infinitive without ‘s’ in 3rd person Singular in:-
(i) Neg: He need not go so early.
(ii) Semi Neg:- The teacher need hardly tell the back- ward pupils that they must work hard.
(iii) Interr:- Need he go so early?
(iv) Indirect question:- Ido not understand why he need go so early.

2. NON-ANOMALOUS Regular verb with the mean- ing “require” as :-
Does he need warm clothing?
Note: In the case of the above 14 verbs, when they are used as, Non-anomalous, they follow the rules governing other verbs for forming Negative and Interrogative.
3. The third function is (a) to serve as Model verbs (i.c. to form) certain moods for which English has no inflected verb (forms) (b) to express such concepts as are not covered by the moods in English.

The above function is served by the following 10 verbs which are always anomalous :
G-Can, could; may, might; must, ought; shall, should; will, would; (auxiliary verbs) These are originally verbs with full meanings. But when these senses have been entirely lost they are said to be used as Auxiliary verbs).
(a) Model verbs; as:-
1. Optative mood: May you live long! (wish)
2. Potential mood:- I can answer the question (ability) 3. (Fast dying) Subjunctive mood:
a) We eat that we may live (purpose).
b) If he should discover it, we are ruined (condition).
c) Would that I had died for thee (unfulfilled wish)
d) I would not do it, if I were you.
e) He may catch the train, if he hurries (doubt).
(b)ai) You must (ought to) do it (compulsion; necessity; obligation).
b) Who may this person be? (uncertainty).
c) It may rain to-morrow (possibility or contingency).
d) May I use your dictionary ? (permission).
e) You might post this letter for me (request).
f) The thieves hid behind the bush (for fear) that the police might not see them (fear).

USED (to): DARE, NEED (Auxiliary verbs,
The three A.F’s Used (to), Dare and Need have been already treated as full verbs [Vide II function (D) (E) (F)] These A.F’s are also used as Auxiliary verbs, when they accompany- ing a non-finite verb-form enlarge the main verbal meaning (expressed by the non-finite) vide: Webster’s International Dictionary as:
1. He used to smoke cigars before his marriage.
He used to (auxiliary) express that smoking (main verb) is a past habit.
2. He dare not jump across the stream.
He dare (auxiliary) expresses that there is no courage for him to jump (main verb).
3. You need not start now.
Here need (auxiliary) expresses that there is no present necessity
of starting (main verb).
From the foregoing, it is clear that :-
a) 24 A.F’s are (i) Auxiliary and
b) 10 A.F’s (lil Function G)
are only
c) The remaining 14 A.F.’s
Anomalous.
(a) Auxiliary
(b) Anomalous Auxiliary andFull verbs.
Anomalous ana gill Non-anomalous

Correct the following

1. Loved he not?
2. He this book saw not.
3. He reads not his book with care.
4. He did not brought the books.
5. Intend you to go?
6. I not like that man.
7. What said you?
8. Be not late for school.
9. Which boy did speak?
10. Go not out in the rain.
11. Why wentest thou to his house?
12. Why sit you not down.
13. Which way went the man?
14. My son obeys me not.
15. Went he to school?
16. I have no any money.
17. Why you come?
18. To whom you will give this book?
19. Why you have come?
20. Why you were here?
21. Came he?

Ans:- 1. Didn’t he love? 4. He did not bring the books. 5. Do you intend to go? 8. Don’t be late for school. 9. Which boy spoke? 11. Why didst thou go to his house? 13. Which way did the man go? 14. My son does not obey me. 16. I have no money. 21. Did he come? or Was he come?

Participles or Verbal Adjectives

Participles ar 355:- 1. Present participle 2. Past participle 3. Perfect participle. ఇవి క్రియలవలన ఏర్పడును.
(a) Present Participle:- a Simple present tense o చివర ing చేర్చుటచేత నేర్పడును. ఉదా : 80, going
(b) Past Participle:- a ox, Simple present tense రూపములకు చివర (i)en, n చేర్చుటచేతను ఏర్పడును; ఉదా :- beat, beaten, show, shown; (ii) ed, d,t walk, walked; love, loved; burn, burnt verb యొక్క Conjugation లోని మూడవ రూపము (అనగా ఆఖరు వరుసలోని రూపము) Past participle.
(c) Perfect Participle:- 5 having so past participle రూపములు చేర్చుటనే ఏర్పడును. ఉదా :- having walked, having loved, having burnt.
Ten Forms of Different Participles Transitive Verbs
Active voice
Passive voice
Present: Eating
Being eaten
Past:-
Eaten
Perfect: Having eaten
Having been eaten
Intransitive Verbs
Present Fading The flowers in the vase are fading. Past – faded: The flowers have not entirely faded. perfect- Having faded: The flowers having faded, had to be thrown out.
N.B. 1. A good knowledge of the participles as well as their use in 1. Construction 2. Synthesis and 3. Transformation of sentences goes a long way in acquiring command over the language.

The participle construction is a brief and convenient way of joining a subsidiary statement to the principal one. Present Participle
This is one of the eight non-finites, formed by adding “ing” to the simple present tense form; so we cannot make sentencs with this alone.
The following are some of its most important uses:
1. As part of a verb to form the continuous tenses; I am eating; I was eating; I shall be eating; etc.
2. As epithets :- There are books in running brooks.
3. As a predicate-adjective:-
He came running along the street.
N.B. The following examples are worth noticing :- 1. There is no one living in the street. 2. They wait about doing nothing. 3. He felt his strength improving. 4. He spent an hour visiting all the stalls in the Exhibition. 5. If one’s life is spent trying to stop nuclear tests, it is the noblest. 6. He is busy preparing for the examination. 7. While going to the bazar, he had an accident.
4. In compound participle phrases:-
5. A good-looking fellow. 2. A well-fitting cap.
Note:- Running brooks running are run అను క్రియనుండి ఏర్పడి adjective వలె brook అను noun ను quality చేయుచున్నది. ఇట్లు verb వలెను. adjective వలెను కూడ వ్యవహరించుట డి దీనిని Verbal Adjective అందురు.
Since running partakes of the nature of both a verb and an adjective it is called a participle.
5. Participles, adjectives ao adjectives
a) Adverbs చేత modify చేయబడును. ఉదా:-
The girl was found in an almost dying stage.
b) Degrees of Comparison ను తీసికొనుము. ఉదా :- He spoke in a more pleasing way.

6. Some participles are used as Prepositions.
There are many rumours concering, (or regarding) the murder; Respecting your plan, I shall write to you.. During the summer vacation, my father wishes to celebrate my sister’s marriage.
7. Some participles are used as actual nouns: as >> buildings; surroundings; savings; cuttings; belongings’ etc.
Present Participle
Active voice
a) Qualifying the subject:-
1. I was walking on the road. I saw a snake.
ఇందు మొదటి వాక్యము Subsidiary of statement (అప్రధాన విషయము), రెండవది Primary statement (ప్రధానవిషయము). ఇచట subsidary statement ను Participle phrase లోనికి మార్చి, పై రెండు వాక్యములను కలిపి, Simple sentence గా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును. Walking on the road, I saw a snake.
Walking – Present participle qualifying the pronoun. 1. (Or) Walking on the road, participle phrase qualifying. ‘I walking on the road, saw a snake’ అనుట తప్పు. ఏలన pronoun (1) subject ou participle phrase subject 50% ముందు రావలెను.
5 noun subject as a participle phrase subject ముందు గాని తరువాత గాని రావచ్చును. ఉదా : walking on the road, Rama saw a snake.Or Rama walking on the road, saw a snake.
Note : 1. పై వాక్యములోని రెండు పనులలో ఒకటి ప్రారంభమై జరుగుచుండగా రెండవది సంభవించును.
Note: 2. Simple Walking on the road, I saw a snake. Complex – While I was walking on the road, I saw a
Compound – I was walking on the road and I happened to see a snake then.
2. Taking up his gun, he rushed at the tiger. పై వాక్యములోని రెండు పనులు ఇంచుమించు ఒకే సమయమందు (అనగా ఒక పని వెనువెంటనే రెండవది) ప్రారంభమగును.
e.g. (1) The sum rising has made the sky bright.
The day dawning, we all woke up. (Participle in an absolute phrase).
3. Not seeing the mother bear, the hunter went upto its den to catch hold of one of its cubs.
పై వాక్యములోని రెండు పనులు ఒకే సమయమునందు ప్రారంభమై, ఒకటి జరుగుచున్నంత కాలము రెండవది జరుగును.
4. Next morning filling up their stock with provisions the travellers rode off through the forest.
పై వాక్యములోని రెండు పనులలో ఒకటి జరిగిన వెంటనే రెండవది జరుగును. అనగా రెండు పనులకు మధ్య అవధి (interval) తక్కువ.
5. (a) He is feverish. He has applied for leave. 33 వాక్యము (subsidiary statement) లోని verb చే సూచించబడు స్థితి (state) వలన రెండవ వాక్యములోని పని జరుగుట సంభవించును.
2 do Jivo 503, Simple, Complex, Compound sentences గా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును.
S-Being feverish, he has applied for leave. Cx-He has applied for leave, as he is feverish
Cd-He is feverish, so he has applied for leave. (b) 1. The weather was fine. 2. I went out for a walk. S-The weather being fine, I went out for a walk. Ax – As the weather was fine, I went out for a walk. Cd-The weather was fine and I therefore went out for a
(c) He had a sword in hand. He rushed at the enemy. S-S Sword being in hand, he rushed at the enemy
Or Sword in hand, he rushed at the enemy (Here the parti- ciple is understood).

6. (1) He opened the box. (2) Upon that he saw a snake
మొదటి వాక్యములోని పని జరిగిన మీదట దాని ఫలితముగా అంతట రెండవ ‘వాక్యములో” పని జరుగును.
Simple – Opening the box, he found a snake in it.
Cx- When he opened the box, he found a snake in it. Cd-He opened the box and thereupon he found a snake
7. Turn to the right. You will find a temple. S-Turning to the right, you will find a temple. Cx-If you turn to the right, you will find a temple. Cd. Turn to the right and you will find a temple. e. g……God willing, we shall meet again (=If God wills…) 8. You must confess your fault. Otherwise you will be fined.
S-Not confessing your fault, you will be fined.
Cx-If you do not confess your fault, you will be fined (or) Unless you confess your fault, you will be fined.
Cd-You must confess your fault, or you will be fined. 9. The wrestler, possessed greater strength than his opponent. The former was defeated.
S. Possessing greater strength the wrestler was defeated. Or
In spite of the wrestlr possessing greater strength than his opponent he was defeated.
Cx-Though the wrestler possessed greater strength than his opponent; he was defeated.
10. When the present participle is left without a proper subject of reference, the participle is called an impersonal absolute as:
(1) Considering hisabilities, he should have been selected (=If one considers his abilities). (2) Roughly speaking; there are a thousand applications for two posts.
3. Supposing this to be true, you are certainly guilty.
b) Qualifying the object:
1) I saw a boy. 2) He was sitting near the well.
S-I saw a boy sitting near the well.
Cx. I saw a boy who was sitting near the well. Cd-A boy was sitting near the wel and I happened to see
him then.
Our Headmaster starts today to attend the District Head- master’s conference opening tomorrow at Kakinada.
c) Qualifying the complement
The bearer of this note is a candidate appearing for the Matric in April next.
Present Participle
Passive Voice
a) Qualifying the subject:

1. He was disgusted with his step-mother’s treatment. 2. He left the house.
ఇచ్చట Passive Voiceలో నున్న subsidiary statement లోని క్రియను passive present participleలోనికి మార్చి, పై రెండు వాక్యము లను కలిపి Simple sentence గా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును.
.Being disgusted with his step-mother’s treatment, he left thehouse.
Being disgusted passive present participle qualifying the pronoun.
Note: Being disgusted అను మాటను లోపింపజేసి వాక్యము నిట్లు కూడ వ్రాయవచ్చును.

Disgusted with his step-mother’s treatment he left the house.
e.g. Provided you agree to the condition, there will be no difficiculty = That you agree to the condition, being provided, there will be no difficulty.
b) Qualifying the object:
1. The people saw the traitor’s corpse.
2. It was dragged along the streets.
S-The people saw the traitor’s cropse being dragged along the streets.
Or
The people saw the traitor’s corpse dragged along the streets (omitting being).
Cx-The people saw the traitor’s corpse, while it was being dragged along the streets.
Perfect Participle
Active Voice
a) Qualifying the subject;
He made a mistake..
He apologised.
-ఈ రెండు పనులలో (ఒకటి తప్పు చేయుట) పూర్తి అయిన పిమ్మట రెండవ పని క్షమింపగోరులు) జరుగును. అందుచే మొదటి పూర్తి అయిన పనిని తెలియజేయు వాక్యమును Perfect Participle లోనికి మార్చి ఆ రెండు వాక్యములను కలిపి Simple sentenceగా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును.
Having made a mistake, he apologised.
Having made-Perfect Participle qualifying the subject,
e.g: Having eaten six plantains, I suffered from stom- achache last night.
b) Used in an absolute phrase:
The commander had fled. So the army was defeated.
The commander having fled the army was defeated.

Note: Perfect participle చేయుపనిని చేయునని గ్రహింపనగును.
c) He has narrowly failed. He wishes to sit for the October examination.
Past Perfect tense
Having failed narrowly he wishes to appear for the October examination.
e.g. Having learnt that there is a vacancy for a typist, I apply for
Note: Perfect participle 6 Present Perfect
tense చేయు పనిని చేయును.
Perfect Participle
Passive Voice
He was insulted by his master. So he resigned.
Passive voice లో నున్న మొదట జరిగిన పనిని తెలియజేయు వాక్యమును Passive Perfect Participle లోనికి మార్చిపై రెండు వాక్యములను కలిపి Simple sentenceగా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును.
Having been insulted by his master, he resigned.
The Commander had The Commander having been been killed. So the army fled. killed, the. army fled.

Note : ఒక పని పూర్తి అయిన పిమ్మట దాని ఫలితముగా కొంత ఆవధితో మరియొక పనీ సంభవించు సందర్భములోనే Perfect participleను
వాడవలెను.
Note: Sometimes the perfect participle is understood: as: 1. Given the three sides of a triangle, construct it = The three sides of a triangle (having been) given, (you) construct it. 2. All things (having been) considered, you were found to be in the right.
Past Participle A
The past participle is one of the eight non-finites (the third form in the conjugation) and so we cannot make a sentence with this alone.
The following are some of the important uses:
1. It forms part of a verb to form the perfect tenses as: I have eaten. I had eaten.
2. As epithet:
1. A ruined tower. 2. A burnt child dreads the fire.

Note : Ruined అనునది ruin అను verb నుండి ఏర్పడి పనిని తెలియజేయును. tower అను nounను adjective వలె qualify చేయు చున్నది. కాబట్టి దానిని past participle అందురు.
3. As a predicative adjective – He looks tired.
4. Compound Participle Phrase:
1. Well-behaved boy. 2. Ready-made goods.
5. To form the passive voice:
A tiger was killed by me.
6. As a noun: Let bygones be bygones.
7. To express the idea of getting a thing done by others: I cannot do it; so I shall have (or get) it done by my brother.

Note: Done – Obj. compl. of have (or get).
B . I saw a box. It was covered with a cloth.
Subsidiary statement eos ‘It was covered with a cloth’ passive voice లో నున్నది. దీనిని passive voice లో నుండు Adjective clause లోనికి మార్చి ఆ రెండు వాక్యములను కలిపి complex sentence గా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును.
Complex: I saw a box which was covered with a cloth.
complex sentenceలో నున్న Rel. pron. (which) ను దాని తరువాతనున్న be యొక్క రూపము (was)ను కూడ లోపింపజేసి ఆ Adjective clause ను phrase లోనికి మార్చి ఆ వాక్యములను simple sentenceగా ఇట్లు వ్రాయవచ్చును.

Simple: I saw a box covered with a cloth.
Note: covered; Past part. qualifying the noun box. e.g: 1. The basket is filled with flowers. 2. It is on the table.
Complex: The basket which is filled with flowers, is on the
Sim: The basket filled with flowers is on the table. Note: filled – Past Participle qualifying the noun basket. Note: Transitive ver a past participle మాత్రమే ఈ construction సాధ్యమగును.
1. With the enemy’s guns resounding, and his own friends opposed to him, Lenin had to agree to a compromise. 2. Bruised and bleeding, Gandhi was taken to his friend’s house in Durban.
1. This had been done.
2. We all left the place.
Note: Done absolute this.
D This (having been) done, we all left the place (=When this had been done, we……….) Past part. qualifying the Nominative
Gerunds or Verbal Nouns

(1) ‘Reading novels is pleasant’ e అనునది Verb వలె novels అను కర్మను కలిగియుండుటయే గాక, noun వలె is అను క్రియకు కర్తగా నున్నది. కాబట్టి reading అనునది verb వలెను. noun వలెను కూడ వ్యవహరించుటచే అది యొక verb-noun; దీనినే Gerund అందురు.
Gerund present participle 38 a simple present రూపమునకు చేర్చుటచే ఏర్పడును.
(2) Transitive verb 35 Gerunds Active voice! సంబంధించినవి రెండు Passive voice కి సంబంధించినవి రెండు మెత్తము నాలుగు రూపములు గలవు..
verbయొక్క Gerund కు రెండే రూపములు,
Present: Fading. Perfect – Having faded.

(3) ఇప్పుడు Participle రూపములును. Gerund రూపములును, ఒక్కగానే కనిపించుచున్నవి. కాని Participle, Gerund ఒకటి కావు. Participle adjective పనిచేయగా Gerund noun పనిని చేయును.

(4) Gerund ఒక విధమైన Nounకాబట్టి ఆది Noun వలనే ఒక verbకు (c) complement m (d) 25
(a) subject (b) object preposition కు object గాను ఉండవచ్చును. ఉదా ::
a) Subject to a verb: Reading is pleasant.
b) Object to a verb: I like reading;
c) Complement to a verb: The best kind of occupation is reading.
d) Object to a prepostion: He is fond of reading.

(5) Gerund, transitive verb od 50 verbకూడ కాబట్టి Tranisitive verbవలనే objectను govern చేయును. ఉదా I am fond of reading novels.

(6) Gerund verb sa adverbs 33 modify 3.
ఉదా :
a) He is noted for speaking clearly.
b) He is in the habit of taking exercise daily.
Note: oder main verbos subject, Gerund
యొక్క subject ఒకటే అయి ఉండవలెను. ఉదా :
We increase trade by learning languages.
Wrong – Trade increases by learning languages.
ఏలన learning కి subject గా trade ఉండ వీలు లేదు.
Correct: Trade increases by our learning languages.sg మారునపుడు Gerund (learning)కి వెనుక దానికి చెందు subject యొక్క possessive case రూపము (our) వాడవలెను.
Note: If the main verb is passive the subject of the Gerund may be implied; as:

1. Trade is increased by learning languages. 2. Iron is found by digging in the earth.
A Gerund should not be used for infinitive and vice versa, where idiom has established certain conventions.
A writer ignorant of that idiom is often betrayed by his failure to observe the conventions.
Some nouns, adjectives and verbs are idiomatically fol- lowed by the infinitve and some by the gerund, a few of which are set out in the table see page 153.

The sentence; “Your mother is opposed to your going abroad.” Implies: your mother is not opposed to you person- ally, but she is opposed to the action of going abroad.
Going: Gerund, object of the prepostion, to and qualified by the possessive adjective your.
On the above analogy we have, “I am opposed to Rama’s going abroad.” This sentence is grammatically correct but reads awkward if not absurd. The use of the noun Rama in the possessive case, (Rama’s) offends against euphony, elegance and genius of the language. This is confirmed firstly by the pronoun this having no possessive form at all; as:
“There is little hope of this happening today”. Secondly, this usage has long been adopted by good writers:
“Upon Prometheus telling his father, the wish of his friend, Valentine, he at once determined to send his son to Milan”- Lamb..
Lastly this provides an idiomatic and elegant mode of expression: “I am opposed to Rama going abroad”.

But here the noun Rama defines construction. The par- ticiple going and the noun Rama are fused into a whole; hence going is called a fused participle.
Note: The possessive form must be avoided in the case of nouns (in fused participle construction) and usage has changed since the days of Fowler.
Note: A running stream means a stream that runs (here running is a participle qualifying the noun stream).
Whereas ‘drinking water’ does not mean ‘water’ that drinks but ‘water fit for dinking (here evidently drinking is not a participle but a gerund used as an adjective qualifying the noun water as: Riding horse (=Horse used for riding, walking stick (=stick used in walking); Writing table (=table used for writing); Dining hall (=hall used for dining), Reading room (-room used for reading.)

To Distinguish Gerunds from Participles
Participles
1. A running stream
2. A dancing bear
3. A walking dictionary
Gerunds
A running track A dancing lesson
A dancing hall
A walking stick

1. Transformation of sentences with the help of the Gerund: A-Complex: When we opened the box, we found a snake in it, Simle On opening the box, we found a snake in it. Cd-1 opened the box and found a snake in it.
B-Complex: I do not doubt that you are able to do it. Simple -I do not doubt your being able to do it.
Cd-You can do it and I don’t doubt it.
C-Complex: The boy was punished, because he did not sit for the examination. Cd-The boy had not sat for the examina- tion, so he was punished.
D-Complex: Does anybody object, if I smoke?
Simple Does anybody object to my smoking?
E-Complex: Since I joined the army I have not seen him. Simple: Since joining the army I have not seen him. Cd-I joined the army, but I have not seen him since.
2. Complex Since he joined the army, I have not seen him. Simple: Since his joining the army, I have not seen him. Cd-He joined the army, but I have not seen him since. Ex. 35 B.
ఈ క్రింది వానిలో participles ను Gerunds ను కనుగొనుము.

1. Here is a sleeping cat.
2. I am tired of doing this work.
3. Sleeping is necessary to life.
4. Sleeping is more difficult than writing.
5. In running the race he fell.
6. I saw a boy throwing a stone.
7. Riding is a healthy exercise.
8. He earns his living by writing books.
9. Writing books is his employment.
10. His employment is writing books.
11. We found him writing a book.
12. I saw a big writing table.
13. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
14. A barking dog never bites.
15. A drowning man catches at a straw.
16. A kid standing on the roof of a house saw a wolf passing by.

Verbal Nouns
Gerund నకు వెనుక The యును తరువాత of ను ఉండిన దానిని ప్రత్యేకముగా Verbal Noun అందురు. The reading of novels is pleasant. Formation of verbs
Verbs are formed from:
i) Nouns: Grass, graze; Food, feed; Fool, befool; Slave, enslave; Haste, hasten; Cross, crucify.
ii) Adjectives: Soft, soften; Glad, gladden; Just, justify.

Ex. 35 C
Form Verbs from:
Blood, gulf, hard, friend, dark, length, courage, bath, glass, fruit, broad, wide, loss. Convention Regarding Use of Gerund and Infinitive After Certain Words
Sl. No. Followed by Preposition & Gerund
1. Habit of rising early.
2. Duty of checking the work.
3. Idea of waiting till to-morrow.
4. Objections to white-washing
5. Resistance to being driven out.
6. With the view of building a house.
1. (Un) equal to facing danger.
2. Be used to carrying logs of wood.
3. Weary of walking.
4. Skilful in doing.
5. Sick of waiting.
1. Confess to having stolen.
2. Object to paying his share.
3. Succeed in solving the problem.
4. Looks forward to meeting his son.
5. Aim at passing the examination.
6. Perists in doing a thing.
NOUNS
Followed by Infinitive
1. Refusal to help me.
2. Reluctance to use force.
3. Tendency to tease subordinates.
4. Determination to learn English.
5. Hesitation to buy shares.
6. Inspiration to immortalise daffodils.
ADJECTIVES
1. (Un) able to face danger.
2. (In) sufficient to put down the rebellion. 3. (In) adequate to support a family.
4. (In) competent to manage the office. 5. Delightful to wander in the moonlight. VERBS
1. Does not profess to be a scholar.
2. Refusal to pay the fine.
3. Threatens to punish.
4. Avails to soften him..
5. Pledges [1. to engage] one’s word or one’s honour to do a thing. [=2. to bind oneself to do a thing]. [=to bind one by (or as if by) a pledge to do a thing e.g. He pledged the signatory powers to meet the common danger]. 6. (Be) pledged [-to cause one to make (or sign) a pledge: e.g. The officers are pledged to join the clerical staff in the strikel.