Anti-Aging Medicines Seek To Eliminate “Zombie” Cells – But Could This Be Dangerous?

Senescent Cells Aid in Regeneration of Damaged Tissues

Recent research from the University of California, San Francisco suggests that not all senescent cells are harmful “zombies” that must be removed in order to prevent age-related disorders. Instead, some of them support typical repair of injury and are embedded in young, healthy tissues.

The small intestine, colon, and skin are examples of organs that operate as barriers in the body, and scientists have recently observed similar cells in work in lung tissue as well. Damage to lung tissue healed more slowly when senolytic medicines were used to remove these cells.

 

Distant black hole is caught in the act of annihilating a star

Tien Peng, MD, associate professor of pulmonary, critical care, allergy and sleep medicine, and senior author of the study, said that senescent cells can occupy niches with privileged positions as “sentinels” that monitor tissue for injury and respond by encouraging nearby stem cells to grow and begin repair.

Injured and healed by ageing cells

According to Peng, it makes sense why scientists at first thought senescent cells were only bad. As people age, senescent cells build up; these cells exhibit the traits of old, worn-out cells and lack the ability to produce new cells.

They continue to exist and expel a variety of inflammatory chemicals that together make up the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Alzheimer’s disease, arthritis, and other age-related illnesses including cancer have all been linked to these factors. “Zombie cells” was the snappy term given to them.

Researchers found that deleting senescent cells from animals decreased age-related disease and prolonged the animals’ longevity using senolytics, which target and eliminate “zombie cells.” After that, pharmaceutical corporations and research facilities went into overdrive trying to find and develop stronger versions of these medications.

Peng noted that removing senescent cells poses risks. For starters, this recent study shown that senescent cells also have the capacity to enhance typical healing by stimulating stem cell repair. Senolytics have the potential to target disorders where senescent cells drive pathologic stem cell behaviour, but our data reveals that they may negatively impact normal repair.

Senescent Cells are Lit
Senescent cells can be challenging to investigate since their indicators, such as the gene p16, are sometimes scarce and difficult to find. In early experiments, fibroblastic cells were isolated, grown in culture dishes until there were sufficient numbers of cells for experiments, and then treated with substances that caused senescence in the cells.

But in living things, interactions between cells and the tissues around them have a significant impact on the gene activity of the cells. This means that compared to cells in their normal environment, the features of cells growing in isolation in a glass dish may be very different.

Postdoctoral researcher Nabora Reyes de Barboza, Ph.D. and colleagues improved on a conventional method of fusing a pertinent gene—in this case, the p16 gene, which is overactive in senescent cells—with green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a marker that can reveal the location of the cells under ultraviolet light—to create a more effective tool for their studies.

Reyes significantly increased the fluorescent signal in these senescent cells by increasing the amount and stability of green fluorescent protein, allowing the researchers to observe senescent cells in their natural environment of live tissues.

Stem Cells Are Stimulated Soon After Birth by “Zombies”

The researchers discovered that senescent cells exist in young and healthy tissues to a larger extent than previously believed and really start to develop shortly after birth using this extremely sensitive technology.

The researchers also discovered particular growth factors that senescent cells emit in order to encourage stem cells to proliferate and heal tissues. The revelation that immune system cells like macrophages and monocytes can activate senescent cells is relevant to ageing and tissue damage. This finding implies that inflammation present in old or injured tissue is a crucial regulator of senescent cell activity and regeneration.

In their research on lung tissue, Peng’s team discovered stem cells and green glowing senescent cells coexisting on the basement membrane, which acts as a barrier to keep harmful chemicals and foreign cells out of the body while allowing oxygen to diffuse from the air in the lungs into underlying tissues.

This dynamic interface is vulnerable to damage. The team discovered senescent cells in similar locations in other barrier organs like the skin, small intestine, and colon. Their experiments also proved that lung stem cells were unable to effectively repair the barrier surface when senescent cells were eliminated using senolytics.

Peng’s study, which has major implications for the field of ageing research, which aims to make people live longer and healthier lives, according to Leanne Jones, Ph.D., director of the UCSF Bakar Aging Research Institute and Stuart Lindsay Endowed Professor in Experimental Pathology.

“The studies indicate that senolytics research should focus on identifying and precisely targeting harmful senescent cells, perhaps at the earliest signs of disease,” she said. These results highlight the need for better drugs and small molecules that will target particular senescent cell subsets that are involved in disease rather than regeneration.

Space Flash Is Revealed as Black Hole Spewing the Light of 1,000 Trillion Suns

Although astronomers have witnessed many of these glimmers emerge from outer space, such flashes aren’t really a novel phenomenon for scientists. However, this particular one stood out from the rest.

It looked to emit more light than 1,000 trillion suns combined from a distance of about 8.5 billion light-years. Even without considering the number of suns, the human mind finds it difficult to fathom such an amount.

 

Since the astounding finding of this glimmer, researchers from all around the world have been attempting to determine how, why, and where the brilliant event may have taken place.

And two publications that were released on Wednesday in the journals Nature and Nature Astronomy come to the conclusion that Zwicky detected the signal of an exceptionally extreme “tidal disruption event,” or TDE.

To put it another way, the research team believes that the flare was caused by a jet of matter that was ejecting from the centre of a supermassive black hole and was directed at Earth.

We discovered that the jet speed is 99.99% the speed of light, according to Matteo Lucchini, co-author of the study published in Nature Astronomy and researcher at MIT’s Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research.

John Wheeler, a pioneer in the study of black holes, described the TDE-jet combination as “a tube of toothpaste squeezed tight about its middle,” causing it to “spray matter out of both ends” in 1971. These ultrafast or relativistic plasma and radiation jets that shoot from both of a TDE’s poles are produced by only around 1% of TDEs.

If the team’s assessment of the jet’s existence is accurate, it would be the furthest tidal disruption event ever recorded. But its brilliance is what really stands out about it. This is due to the fact that information can be extracted from an object more easily the brighter it is.

The jet was observed by a total of 21 telescopes worldwide using a variety of light sources, ranging from radio waves to high-energy gamma rays. The data from all of these observations were then matched with data from observed cosmic phenomena, such as neutron stars and kilonovae, but only one scenario yielded a reliable match: a jetting TDE heading directly at us.

To that end, the scientists think it appears as being unusually bright from our vantage point on Earth for two reasons.First, the jet’s black hole home is probably consuming a nearby star, releasing a significant quantity of energy and producing a tremendous amount of light in the process. The jet is incredibly busy and in a “hyper-feeding frenzy,” as MIT research co-author Dheeraj “DJ” Pasham puts it.

Pasham stated in a statement that the star is likely being swallowed at a pace of half the mass of the sun every year. The majority of this tidal disruption occurs in the early stages, and we were able to observe this event just one week after the black hole began consuming the star.

However, second, and in our opinion most fascinating, is because of an effect known as “Doppler boosting.”Doppler boosting refers to what?The Doppler effect basically describes how waves of all kinds, including sound, light, and any other kind, alter as they move closer to or farther away from you.

Imagine what might happen if a car were to pass your house while playing loud music. Not only does the sound become less audible as it moves further away, but it frequently changes in pitch as well. This is as a result of the sound waves appearing to kind of spread out, which causes your brain to perceive them as being at a lower pitch.

When astronomers discuss distant stars and bright galaxies, they frequently use the term “redshift” to allude to the Doppler effect that also affects light waves.The light waves that those objects produce spread out as they get further away, changing from compact bluer waves to relaxed redder ones.

The James Webb Space Telescope from NASA is a huge deal because eventually they even venture into infrared territory, which is undetectable to human vision and conventional optical equipment. The extremely spread out wavelengths found in the vast, black universe can be captured by it.

However, the relativistic jet of AT 2022cmc is travelling in our direction, not away from us, therefore there is no fading or reddening of the light. It is becoming more and more luminous as its photons approach our telescopes, and its acceleration to virtually the speed of light adds to the brightness.

Giorgos Leloudas, a co-author of the Nature paper and an astronomer at DTU Space in Denmark, stated that because the relativistic jet is aimed at us, it makes the event much brighter than it would otherwise look and observable over a wider range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

These kinds of unusually brilliant bursts of light typically result from phenomena called gamma-ray bursts. Gamma-ray bursts are likewise stunning jets, but they are comprised of X-ray emissions emitted as the stellar bodies of large stars collapse.

These phenomena frequently appear in the astronomy hall of fame because of their shimmering nature. In fact, a potent gamma-ray burst that originated from the universe’s far reaches last month left scientists in a state of shock. Its name literally means “the brightest of all time.”

However, additional speculation revealed that AT 2022cmc was unquestionably not a gamma-ray burst.The strongest gamma-ray burst afterglow was 100 times weaker than this particular event, according to Pasham. It was truly extraordinary.

The team came to the surprising conclusion that AT 2022cmc must originate from a black hole’s magnetic whirlpool of debris after weeks of data mining and exhausting all astronomical observation options with X-ray, radio, optical, and UV observatories.

It must be a tidal disruption event with Doppler pigmentation. If so, it would be the fourth Doppler-boosted TDE to be discovered and the first such event overall since 2011. It is also the first TDE to be discovered by an optical sky survey.

The temperature and distance of AT 2022cmc were also determined by scientists using the full range of observations.According to Matt Nicholl, associate professor at the University of Birmingham, “our spectrum told us that the source was hot: over 30,000 degrees, which is normal for a TDE.”

“We did, however, observe some light being absorbed by the galaxy where this event took place. This galaxy was much farther away than we had anticipated, as shown by the strong shift of these absorption lines towards redder wavelengths.”

Surprisingly, the source galaxy may become visible to the James Webb Telescope after AT 2022cmc’s brightness finally declines, blocking off the centre of this distant galaxy, which is why it is not currently visible.

Researchers will keep searching the sky for the mysterious and poorly understood jetting TDE in the meanwhile.In the future, Lucchini predicted, “we foresee many more of these TDEs.” Then we might finally be able to explain how black holes create these incredibly strong jets.

Astronauts prep to install new solar array outside International Space Station

In order to install and unfold a new roll-out solar array just brought by a SpaceX cargo ship, NASA astronauts Josh Cassada and Frank Rubio will don their spacesuits on Saturday and leave the International Space Station.

The spacewalk is set to start about 7:25 a.m. EST (12:25 GMT) on Saturday for Cassada and Rubio, who are both making their first trips into space. When the astronauts turn their spacesuits to battery power, the excursion will formally begin.

 

The Quest airlock of the space station will be where the astronauts will transfer to the starboard, or right, side of the lab’s solar power truss, where the station’s robotic arm earlier this week installed two new ISS Roll-Out Solar Array, or iROSA, units after removing them from the trunk of a SpaceX Dragon cargo capsule.

The solar arrays, together with many tonnes of supplies and experiments, were carried to the space station by the Dragon spacecraft on November 27.On the excursion on Saturday, Cassada will be referred to as EV-1, or the lead spacewalker. He’ll dress in a red-striped suit. Rubio will be dressed entirely in white.

The space station’s power truss, which is more than a football field long from end to end, has a mounting bracket that will hold the new solar array blankets, which are rolled up around spools and will unfold like a yoga mat once they are mounted.

By loosening bolts and launch constraints, the astronauts will attempt to separate one of the two newly delivered iROSA modules from its container first. Cassada will situate himself on a foot restraint on the robotic arm’s Canadian-built end and grip the solar array spools as the arm transports him to the S4 truss.

The iROSA unit will be mounted on a mounting bracket that was already in place during a previous spacewalk by the two spacewalkers. The iROSA unit will be opened on its hinge, and after that, bolts will be put in place to secure it.

To connect the new iROSA unit to the electrical system of the space station, Cassada and Rubio will match electrical connectors. To connect the original S4 solar panel and the newly installed roll-out solar array to the lab’s electrical grid, a Y cable will be installed.

The attachment bracket connects the new arrays to the station’s power conduits and rotary joints, which keep the station’s solar wings aimed at the sun while it orbits the planet at a speed of more than 17,000 miles per hour.

Eight power channels on the International Space Station are fed by electrical energy produced by one solar array wing that extends from the station’s truss backbone. The new solar array, which will be installed on Saturday, will supply power for the 3A power channel of the space station.

From 2000 until 2009, the original solar panels were carried into space on four shuttle missions. The station’s initial solar arrays’ efficiency has decreased with time, as was to be expected. The new roll-out solar arrays, which will partially cover six of the station’s eight original solar panels, are being installed by NASA to upgrade the power system of the space station.

The power system will be able to provide 215 kilowatts of electricity to support at least another ten years of science operations when all six iROSA units are installed on the station. The upgrade will allow for new commercial modules that are slated to be sent to the space station.

The first pair of new roll-out solar arrays were put over the space station’s oldest set of original solar panels on the P6 truss section, which is situated on the far left end of the power truss. They were flown to the space station last year. Next year, two more iROSA devices will be launched on a SpaceX resupply mission.

Boeing, Redwire, and a group of subcontractors gave NASA the new solar panels.

The roll-out solar array’s clamps were released by the astronauts after the new iROSA unit was mechanically and electrically integrated into the station’s S4 truss. They will use the strain energy in the composite booms supporting the solar blanket to slowly unfold the blankets. The deployment mechanism’s construction does not require motors to operate the solar array.

For storage during launch, the carbon fibre support booms were rolled back against their natural curvature.The solar array will unfold to its fully expanded shape, measuring roughly 63 feet long and 20 feet broad, in 6 to 10 minutes (19-by-6 meters).

That equates to almost half the width and length of the station’s present solar arrays. The new arrays produce roughly the same amount of electricity as the station’s current solar panels, despite their lower size.

The astronauts will tweak tensioning bolts to hold the iROSA blanket in place after the blanket has been spread out.On the truss of the space station, the astronauts will return inward to prepare another iROSA unit, which will be mounted on the left-side P4 truss section during a spacewalk anticipated for December 19.

a spacewalk Saturday will mark the 256th spacewalk since 1998 in support of the construction and upkeep of the International Space Station and the second spacewalk in the careers of Cassada and Rubio.

Prehistoric Superpredator: Weird Whatcheeria Was the “T. rex of Its Time”

There have been about 350 Whatcheeria specimens discovered, ranging from single bones to entire skeletons, and each one is housed in the Field Museum’s collections. These specimens were used in a recent study that was published on November 28 in the journal Communications Biology to help explain how Whatcheeria grew large enough to threaten its fishy prey: it grew quickly in its youth rather than “slow and steady” like many contemporary reptiles and amphibians do.

According to Ben Otoo, co-author of the study and PhD candidate at the University of Chicago and the Field Museum, “If you saw Whatcheeria in life, it would probably appear like a huge crocodile-shaped salamander, with a narrow head and plenty of fangs.” It could fit in your bathtub if it really curled up, possibly to an uncomfortable degree, but neither you nor it would desire that.

 

Because Whatcheeria was a top predator, this is the case. Its robust leg bones may have helped it to stay put and wait for prey to swim past. Bony grooves in its cranium for sensory organs shared by fish and aquatic amphibians suggest that it lived underwater.

It most likely would have spent a lot of time close to the bottom of lakes and rivers, lunging out and consuming whatever it pleased, according to Otoo. You could absolutely refer to this as “the T. rex of its time.”

Whatcheeria is a “stem tetrapod,” an early four-legged creature that is a part of the lineage that eventually evolved into the four-limbed creatures that are alive today, despite looking like a huge salamander.

Whatcheeria does not belong in those contemporary groupings, according to Ken Angielczyk, a curator at the Field Museum and co-author of the study. “Whatcheeria is more closely connected to current tetrapods like amphibians, reptiles, and mammals than it is to anything else,” he says. “That implies it can teach us about the evolution of tetrapods, including us.”

Because there are so many Whatcheeria specimens in the Field, researchers may use them to study the animal at various stages of its life. According to Angielczyk, “most early tetrapods are known from just one skeleton, if you’re lucky — in many cases, just a fragment of a single bone.”

However, because the Field is home to such a large number of animals, scientists have been able to identify variation within the species: some Whatcheeria are as large as six and a half feet, while others are much smaller. That implies that it was possible to research their growth.

According to Megan Whitney, the study’s lead author and a professor at Loyola University in Chicago who started working on the project at Harvard University, studying these fossils is similar to reading a book, and the researchers are attempting to read as many chapters as they can by observing how juveniles develop leading up to adulthood.

We chose to focus on the species Whatcheeria and examine its life history at various phases because of where it is located in the early tetrapod family tree.

Otoo and Angielczyk offered up the thigh bones of nine Whatcheeria individuals, ranging in age from juvenile to adult, to observe how the species grew. Stephanie Pierce from Harvard University, Whitney’s advisor, and she used tiny slices of bone to analyse under a microscope. Every growth season, an animal adds new layers of bone, according to Otoo.

They say that the animal may exhibit a seasonal pattern in which it grows rapidly in the spring and summer, stops growing in the winter, and then picks up again in the next spring. You can tell if an animal is growing constantly throughout its life, perhaps with a few brief stops, or if it basically reaches adult size before stopping by looking at how thick the growth rings are over the course of its life.

Some modern tetrapod creatures, including birds and mammals like ourselves, develop rapidly as juveniles before ceasing to grow as adults. Other creatures, including crocodiles and many amphibians, on the other hand, continue to develop slowly throughout their whole lives.

Whatcheeria was predicted by the researchers to grow “slow and steady,” more like reptiles and amphibians. But after looking at the bone slices, Whitney discovered proof that Whatcheeria first expanded quickly before slowing down over time. She even discovered fibrolamellar bone, a main bone tissue linked to quick growth.

Whitney recalled saying, “This breaks all of the rules we thought of for how growth is evolving in these early tetrapods” while hopping on Slack with Stephanie Pierce.

The finding sheds light on several aspects of Whatcheeria’s daily life. Being large and a top predator gives you an advantage over other predators because it’s easier to hunt other animals and more difficult for them to hunt you, according to Pierce.

When living in unpredictable environments like the lake system Whatcheeria inhabited, which experienced seasonal dying periods, it can also be a useful survival strategy.

The trade-off is that extremely rapid growth consumes a tremendous amount of energy, which can be problematic if an animal’s needs for food and resources are not being met. Just as it is simpler to make smaller monthly rental payments than it is to save up for a sizable down payment on a home, it is also simpler to obtain just enough food to grow a little bit.

Researchers say the results serve as a reminder that evolution is a series of experiments rather than a tidy, stepwise process and help us understand the evolutionary pressures on early tetrapods.

According to Angielczyk, evolution involves experimenting with various lifestyles and feature combinations. “As a result, you get an early tetrapod animal like the Whatcheeria, which is also one that grows quite quickly. For its period, it is incredibly significant.

It has this peculiar skeleton that may allow it to accomplish feats that some of its contemporaries were unable to. It demonstrates the diversity of life on Earth both then and now and is an experiment in how to be a large predator.

Distant black hole is caught in the act of annihilating a star

More than halfway across the known universe, astronomers have observed an act of tremendous violence as a black hole rips apart a star that got too close to this celestial savage. But this was not your typical case of a hungry black hole.

It was one of just four instances—and the first one since 2011—of a black hole being seen tearing apart a passing star in a phenomenon known as a tidal disruption event before ejecting brilliant jets of high-energy particles into space in opposite directions. And it was the most distant and brilliant such occurrence ever observed.

 

In research that were published in the journals Nature and Nature Astronomy on Wednesday, astronomers described the event. A supermassive black hole estimated to be hundreds of millions of times as large as our sun and located about 8.5 billion light-years from Earth looks to be the culprit. 5.9 trillion miles is the distance that light travels in a year, or a light year (9.5 trillion km).

Igor Andreoni, principal author of one of the studies and an astronomer at the University of Maryland and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, stated, “We think that the star was similar to our sun, probably more massive but of a common kind.

Through the Zwicky Transient Facility astronomical survey, the event was discovered in February using a camera mounted on a telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California. The Very Large Telescope of the European Southern Observatory in Chile was used to determine the distance.

According to University of Minnesota astronomer and study co-author Michael Coughlin, when a star dangerously approaches a black hole, it is violently torn apart by the black hole’s gravitational tidal forces. “This is similar to how the moon pulls tides on Earth, but with greater strength,” he said. (Watch the tidal disruption incident animation.)

The star’s fragments are then gathered into a rapidly spinning disc revolving around the black hole. Eventually, what is left of the dying star in the disc is absorbed by the black hole. When the tidal disruption event happens, large jets of material are occasionally blasted in opposing directions in extremely unusual circumstances, which we estimated to be 100 times more uncommon, Coughlin continued.

According to Andreoni and Coughlin, the black hole was probably rotating quickly, which may have contributed to how the two potent jets were propelled into space at nearly the speed of light.

Dheeraj Pasham, an astronomer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the study’s lead author, said the team was able to monitor the occurrence just one week after the black hole began engulfing the dying star.

Even while tidal disruption events are found by researchers roughly twice a month, jet-producing ones are incredibly uncommon. Doppler boosting, which is a phenomenon equivalent to amplifying the sound of a passing police siren, is an effect that causes one of the jets emerging from this black hole to appear to be directed toward Earth, making it appear brighter than if it were moving in another direction.

Much like the Milky Way and most galaxies, the supermassive black hole is thought to be located at the centre of a galaxy. However, the tidal disruption event was so intense that it blocked out the stars of the galaxy. The source shone brighter than 1,000 trillion suns at its brightest, according to Pasham.

The Callosto Protocol Review – A Satisfyingly Tense Newcomer

The Callisto Protocol is a new game that is similar to Dead Space, which has long been a favourite of mine. It comes from the same creative team that created Dead Space, along with other excellent spiritual successors like The Evil Within, Bayonetta, and even Lost Odyssey.

After completing The Callisto Protocol, it became evident that the Dead Space DNA had been preserved but had undergone a complete mutation, much like the new Biophage menace.

You assume the character of Jacob Lee in the Callisto Protocol, a pilot of a freight transporter who works for the United Jupiter Company. His most recent task is straightforward but lucrative: transport a dangerous stuff between the moons of Jupiter, Europa and Callisto.

A terrorist organisation ambushes his ship, which causes it to crash and imprison him in a facility on Callisto. Naturally, Jacob realises he must go after being busted out of his cell after an outbreak of an unidentified illness while he is incarcerated.

Ironically, the story that follows is merely unexpected in that there are almost no surprises. Without a question, The Callisto Protocol wears its influences on its sleeve, yet it seems like a tremendous missed chance to manipulate and challenge players’ preconceptions regarding how the game develops.

Instead, The Callisto Protocol offers a science fiction tale that blatantly plagiarises the works that served as its inspiration (imagine Alien crossed with Dead Space), lacking the creative flare to properly identify it as its own.

The Callisto Protocol, however, does feel more realistic than Dead Space, thus anyone who found the enormous space-traveling bio-recombinant necromorphs repulsive would take comfort in the straightforwardness of The Callisto Protocol.

 

The game thus plays similarly to Dead Space, as you might imagine. Jacob makes his way through Callisto’s facilities in an effort to flee in this primarily linear, narrative-driven thriller.

However, The Callisto Protocol does a few things that you wouldn’t see in a Dead Space game in an effort to carve out its own niche, despite the fact that it is obviously influenced by Dead Space. It accomplishes this in a number of ways, including by handling combat and encounter design and delivering a more realistic story.

Combat in the Callisto Protocol is more about heavy hitting than dismemberment. You’ll interact with your adversaries more directly if you place more of an emphasis on melee. Due to the increased emphasis on melee combat, you are also given a tonne of manoeuvres to avoid and deflect the attacks of approaching adversaries.

This is accomplished by blocking an enemy’s attack by holding the stick back or to the left or right of the enemy. Even though the game claims that timing is not necessary, there have been instances where a good dodge resulted in me still getting damage. It’s a cool mechanism in use, and it feels great when you use it properly, but it could have been more reliable.

This fits in quite oddly with the fact that, despite the fighting having a lot of weight and being incredibly rewarding, things start to unravel when you’re under attack from multiple enemies.

There aren’t many ways to fight many foes at once, and Jacob can only block one strike at a time. A powerful melee attack can damage numerous adversaries, but it is impractical in the middle of a pile-on since it takes so long to wind up.

I’ll say it if you’re not interpreting the message well enough. Playing The Callisto Protocol is difficult. It’s tough in the majority of cases since you have to use your resources wisely when fighting your foes.

It can be difficult to the point of frustration in some circumstances, albeit this is a minority of my experience. Players will undoubtedly become frustrated by the battle system breaking down when dealing with multiple enemies and strikes that can instantly kill someone.

As a huge lover of horror games, I’m used to (and possibly even welcome) obstacles of this nature, but for some players, it will be more aggravating than enjoyable. Callisto can be a difficult game, but accessibility options like auto-dodge and lock-on targeting will undoubtedly ease some of these issues.

You have a limited arsenal of weapons at your disposal, including different versions of the standard pistol, shotgun, and assault rifle. You can easily complete the game with the gun you’re given at the beginning, thus none of the weapons really serve a purpose. Having such basic equipment feels like a squandered opportunity.

Nevertheless, the game’s gameplay does an excellent job of requiring you to switch between using weapons, melee, and your telekinetic ability (called GRP). I didn’t rely on one over the other at any point during the game. When you pummelled an opponent in melee, you draw attention to a place on the target that will take more damage if you shoot at it right away.

It’s an easy system that never becomes stale. The Callisto Protocol is built on a very robust fighting system that includes the ability to grasp and hurl enemies onto traps like spikes, fans, or revolving blades with your GRP.

Alphabet – Vowels and Consonants: Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Alphabet – Vowels and Consonants

  1. ప్రతి భాషయు వాక్యములతో నేర్పబడును. వాక్యములు మాటలతో నేర్పబడును. మాటలు శబ్దముల (Sounds) తో నేర్పడును; శబ్దములకు వ్రాత గుర్తులు అక్షరములు.
  2.  ఇంగ్లీషు భాషకు అక్షరములు 26, వీనికి Alphabet అని పేరు. ఇవి Capitals అని Small letters అని రెండు విధములుగా వ్రాయబడును; వానిలో అచ్చు అక్షరములని, వ్రాత అక్షరములని రెండేసి రకము లుండును. 
  • CAPITALS (పెద్దవి) :
    (a) అచ్చు అక్షరములు
    ABCDEFGHIJKLM
    NOPQRSTU V W X Y Z
    (b) వ్రాత అక్షరములు :
    A B C D E F G H I J K L M
    NO P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
  •  Small letters (చిన్నవి)
    (ఎ) అచ్చు అక్షరములు :-
    abcdefghijklm
    nopqrstuvwxyz
    (b) వ్రాత అక్షరములు
    a b c d e f g h i j k l m
    n o p q r s t u v w x y z

ప్రతి వాక్యపు మొదటి మాటలోని మొదటి అక్షరము, మనుష్యుల పేర్లు. పట్టణముల పేర్లు, దేశముల పేర్లలోని మొదటి అక్షరములు ‘Capitals’ నారంభించవలెను.
3. అక్షరములు రెండు విధములు :
(a) అచ్చులు (Vowels)
(b) హల్లులు (Consonants)

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

  • (a) a, e, i, o, ur అను అక్షరములు గాని, వానిచే సూచించబడి వానియంతబ అవే ఉచ్చరింపబడు శబ్దములుగాని Vowels అనబడును.
    Definition:- Any of the lettersa, e, i, o, uor of the sounds (represented by them) that can be uttered without any other letters are called Vowels.
    (b) y – Usually in the middle or at the end of a Syllable * of a word, it is a vowel (as in myth, happy, my)
    (c) w: It is a vowel at the end of syllable as in new.
  •  అచ్చుల సహాయము లేనిదే తమంతట తాము ఉచ్చరింపబడనేరని తక్కిన యక్షరములు Consonants అనబడును.
    Def:- Anon-vowel letter (of the alphabet) which cannot
    be sounded without the aid of a vowel is called a Consonant.

a,e,i,o, u లు కాక తక్కన అక్షరములును, ఒక మాటకుగాని Syllable కు గాని ఆరంభమందువచ్చు w, y లుసు (e.g. Water, walk, went a way, sho-wer, అను మాటలలోని w ను; you, yard, beyond, lo-yal అను మాటలలోని yను హల్లులు (Consonants).
(Syllable) ఒక అచ్చుగా గాని ఒకే అచ్చుధ్వని నిచ్చు అచ్చుల సము దాయముగా గాని యుండవచ్చును. ఉదా: away (a-way) లో a అనునది ఒక syllable, way అనునది మరియొక Syllable, either (ei-ther) లో e, i అను రెండును కలిసి ఒక అచ్చువలె పలుకుటనే ఒక syllable అగును. their మరియొక syllable.
ఒక్క మారుగా నుచ్చరింపదగిన మాటగాని, మాటయొక్క భాగముగాని syllable అనబడును.

ఒకప్పుడు syllableలో, ఒక అచ్చుగాని ఒక అచ్చు యొక్క ధ్వని నిచ్చు అచ్చుల సముదాయముగాని, హల్లులతో కలిసి యుండవచ్చును. ఉదా:- heavy (hea-vy) లో hea ఒక syllable, vy మరియొక syllable.

Alphabet Vowels and Consonants Definition And Types with Examples In Telugu

Parts of Speech (భాషాభాగములు)

English భాషలోని మాటలన్నియు, వాక్యములో నవి చేయు పనులను బట్టి ఎనిమిది విధములుగా భాగింపబడినది. ఆ విధములకే Parts of Speech (భాషాభాగములు) అని పేరు.
Def:- Words are divided into eight kinds according to their use and these kinds are called Parts of Speech.
అవి ఏవన :-
1. Noun (నామవాచకము)
2. Verb (క్రియ)
3. Pronoun (సర్వనామము)
4.Adjective (విశేషణము)
5. Adverb (క్రియావిశేషణము)
6. Preposition (విభక్త్యర్ధ పదము)
7. Conjuction(సముచ్చయము)
8. Interjection (భావోద్రేక ప్రకటనార్ధకము)

1. The Noun (నామవాచకము)

Gopal, Krishna, John అను మాటలు ఎవరి పేర్లు ? మనుష్యుల పేర్లు. Calcutta, Madra, Bombay అను మాటలు వేని పేర్లు? పట్టణముల పేర్లు. Cow, Dog, Cat అనునవి వేని పేర్లు? జంతువుల పేర్లు. Book, Pen, Slate అను మాటలు వేని పేర్లు ? వస్తువుల పేర్లు. Crowd, rice, courage -ఇని కూడ పేర్లు అని గ్రహించనగును. ఇట్టి పేర్లు Nouns ( నామవాచకములు)అనబడును.

మనుష్యులు, జంతువులు, స్థలములు, వస్తువులు (అనగా పర్వతములు, నెలలు, వారములు, నదులు, సముద్రములు, కుర్చీలు) మొదలగువేని పేర్లయినను Nouns ( నామవాచకములు) అనబడును. ఉదా:- Gopal, Mary, Calcutta, India, Dog, Cat, Chair, Book, The Godavary, The Red Sea, The Vindhyas, January, Sunday, Flock, Milk, P
Def:- A Noun is th: name of a person, place or thing.

Ex. 1
Pick out the Nouns in the following:
ఈ క్రింది వానిలో Nouns చెప్పుము.
(a) 1. The book is on the desk.
2. The chair is in the room.
3. The pencil is on the table.
4. The bench is near the wall.
5. The boys are sitting on the bench.
6. The man has a cap on his head.
7. The duster is on the floor.
8. The bird has two wings.
9. The child has two hands.
10. There is water in the cup.
11. The lamb is eating grass.

(b) 1. Children play.
2. Birds sing.
3. The goat fell into the well.
4. Mangoes are sweet.
5. Gopal sat on the bench.
6. The peon posted the letter.
7. Calcutta is a big city.
8. The Godavari is a holy river.
9. Cats kill rats.
10. Flowers grow in the garden.
11. He put the money into his pocket.
12 Monkeys climb trees.
13. Children love their parents.
14. The tank is full of water.
15. The cow gives milk.
16. Boys and girls go to school.
17. Give me a long stick.

Ex. 2
Fill-up the blanks with Nouns
ఈ క్రింది వానిలో ఖాళీస్థలములను Nouns తో పూర్తి చేయుము :

(a) 1. The room has two- 2. The boy is in the 3.  man walks with his 4. The boy has a —- in his 5. The sits on the chair. 6. The girl is writing on the —- -7. The  –is in the box. 8. The map is on the — 9. What colour is the—-? 10. There are no —-on the tree. 11.The—– is drinking 12.—– go to school. 13. I see two birds on the —

b) 1. I hear with my —2. I see with my—-3. He thinks with his—–4. The —–shines at night. 5. The sun rises in the—-6. Fishes live in ——7.—-grow in the gardens. 8.— made all things. 9.Birds fly with their—–10. All rivers at last run into the—-11. We cross a river by a——12. The—–crows. 13.Fruits grow on ——14. The farmer ploughs his——-.

THE VERB

The Verb (క్రియ)
“The cow eats grass” “The man saw the dog” అను వాక్యములలోని eats, saw అను మాటలు ఏమి తెలియజేయును? Cow, man చేయు పనులను తెలియజేయును. ఇట్టి పనులను తెలియజేయు మాటలు Verbs (క్రియలు) అనబడును.
2. ‘This book is on the table’ అను వాక్యములో is ఏమి తెలియజేయును ? పుస్తకము యొక్క స్థితిని చెప్పును. ఇట్టి స్థితులను
తెలిజేయు మాటలు కూడ Verbs అనబడును.
3. ‘ I have a pen’ అను వాక్యములోని have ఏమి తెలియజేయును? ఒకదానిని కలిగియుండుటను తెలియజేయును. ఇట్టి మాటలు కూడ Verbs
అనబడును.
పనులను, స్థితులను కలిగియుండుటను తెలియజేయు మాటలు Verbs అనబడును. ఉదా : walk, run, is, own, belongs..
Def:- A Verb is a word which expresses “doing, being, or possessing”; as Rama walks. The penis black. Iown a house in this town.
Ex. 3. Point out the Verbs in the following :-
ఈ క్రింది వానిలోని Verbs చెప్పుము .

(a)
1. I see a ball.
2. Birds fly.
3. The boy runs.
4. Krishna brings water.
5. The sky is blue.
6. He has a pen.
7. Dogs bark.
8. Boys go to school.
9. Where are your books?
10. How many hands have you?
11. The boy is writing.
12. The girl shuts the door.
13. Weeat food.
14. Itis raining.
15. Who sits on the chair?
16. The boy comes.
17. The child plays.

(b)
1. A tiger killed the goat.
2. Stones are very heavy.
3. He went home.
4. The boys are playing.
5. We sleep at night.
6. Cows eat grass.
7. Bring some water.
8. Sit on the bench.
9. Bullocks draw carts.
10. She reads well.
11. The old man tells stories.
12. The boy is talking to his father.
13. I gave him a book.
14. The cat is very pretty.
15. He drinks water.
16. The horse runs fast..

Ex-4. Fill up the blanks with Verbs :-
ఈ క్రింది ఖాళీస్థలములను Verbs తో పూర్తి చేయుము (a) 1. The sun—–2. The dog—-3. Fire —4. Birds—– 5. The bird—–6. Children – —-7. The child—–8. Fishes——9. Dogs——–10.——the door. 11. The horse—-12.Boys——13. on the bench. 14. The cock — –15.———your books down.

(b) 1. This——- my pen. 2. He——–at the map.3. The girl—– on the slate. 4. The cow——two horns. 5. You—–a teacher. 6. The calves.—–the milk. 7. They——- writing copies. 8. They—-no caps.
9. Ia scout. 10.——-he a teacher? 11.——-they school boys?

(c) 1. I——with apen. 2. Krishna— — on the mat.3. The boy—–water.4. – —- me your book. 5. What —–your father?  6 . —–me your nose.7. Where — — your books? 8.—– your book with you. 9. How many eyes ——-you? 10. The teacher —– on the blackboard. 11. Whose books —- these ?12.—–a rupee from him. 13.—-him a rupee.

(d) 1. We must ——–every promise that we —–2. The watch —–good time . 3. The teacher ——my request. 4. We should never —–our promises. 5. I——- in an application for leave . 6. He —-for ten days leave. 7. He —— hold of a rope . 8 . They —— a trap for catching mice. 9. The bird ——-some eggs in the nest .10. I have to ——- an urgent demand this month . 11. He —–prayers to god . 12. He ——his heart to his friends. 13 Every Hindhu ——his prayers at dawn to the sun God .

Ans:- 1. keep, make 2. keeps. 3. granted 4. break 5. put 6. applied 7. caught 8. set 9. laid 10. meet 11. offers 12. opened 13. says

3. The Pronoun (సర్వనామములు)

‘Gopal bought a mango’ ‘Gopal gave the mango to Gopal’s brother’s aden’Gopal bought a mango’; ‘He gave it to his brother’ అని చెప్పుదుము. ఈ వాక్యములో he, it, his అను మాటలు వేనికి ador dat hoe? Gopal, mango, Gopal’s e-Nouns కు, బదులుగా క్రమముగా ఉపయోగింపబడినవి. ఇట్టి మాటలు pronouns , సర్వనామములు) అనబడును.
Nouns (నామవాచకములు) కు బదులుగా ఉపయోగించు మాటలు Pronouns (సర్వనామములు) అనబడును. ఉదా :-
he, they, I, may, thou, you, yours, she, it etc.
Def: A Pronoun is a word used in the place of a noun.
N.B. Pronouns help us to avoid repetition of nouns.
Ex. 5.
Name the Pronouns in:-
ఈ క్రింది వానిలోని Pronouns చెప్పుము.
1. I love my mother.
2. Your sister is very kind to me.
3. We have placed our books here and we don’t find them.
4. Rama asked his father to give him a ball.
5. Our parents told us to do their bidding.
6. My aunt took her children for a walk.
7. She is fond of them and they are fond of her.
8. My kitten is running after its mother.
9. Gopal says this slate is his, but I know it is mine.
10. He will not lend me his pen.
11. He cried out “Jesus, Thou art our Lord”.

 

Ex. 6. Name the Pronouns in these and the Nouns for which they are used:
ఈ క్రిందివానిలోని Pronouns చెప్పి అవి ఏ Nouns కు బదులుగా వచ్చెనో చెప్పుము.
1. Gopal told his brother to come to him.
2. Rama’s watch has stopped; he cannot tell the time by it.
3. School boys must obey their teacher.
4. Rama took his book and placed it on the table.
5. The boy brought some mangoes and they were very sweet.
6. The boys took their kites and went out to fly them.
7. John asked Mary to give him her pen.
8. The cow loves its calf.
9. The girl lives in her father’s house, because she is blind.
10. The father and his son went to catch the train, but they missed it. 11. When the monkey saw the woodman, it climbed a tree to get out of his way.
12. Gopal’s aunt is very fond of him, and so he goes out to see her every day.
13. Rama asked his father to give him a ball.

Ex. 7. Fill up the blanks with Pronouns :-
ఈ క్రింది ఖాళీస్థలములను Pronouns తో పూర్తి చేయుము.
a) 1.—– is a good book. 2. —- am your student. 3. is my brother. 4. are my pens. 5.– -am not a schoolboy. 6. —- –is standing. 7.- ——-have no caps on our.  heads. 8. Take the book and put– on the table. 9. Where is—— going? 10. Why are——talking to? 11. Does
—- love her mother? 12. Is this book? 13. Write— – name on the book. 14. Are —- your friends? 15. Is—- your slate?

Ans: 10. you, him 12. yours 14. they 15. this

b) 1. Seeta loved———-husband. 2. Rama loved —-  wife. 3. Gopal did not do—work and —- master punished—-
4. I have lost——pen, will you give me —-? 5. Your book is red–is green. 6. My sister took the ——-book and went to school. 7. I told —-sister to keep-books in—-box.8. The gardener plucked the flowers and put —- in a basket. 9. All sons should be obedient to—- parents. 10. The queen loves people. 11. Rama lost —- book and found in-1 –brother’s box. 12. The dog broke —- leg.

Ans:-5. mine 7. my, her, my 9. their 11. his, it, his.

Ex. 7 A.
(a) “This is my box” అను వాక్యములో my అను మాటకు బదులు mine అనుమాట నుపయోగించి “The box is mine” అని వ్రాయవచ్చును.
So my, our, your, her, their అను మాటల నుపయోగించి వాక్యములను తిరిగి వ్రాయుము.
1. That is your pen.
2. That is her box. 3. Is this my book?
4. This is their house.
5. Those are our shoes.
6. Are these your books?
7. This is her doll.
8. Is this your cap? 9. That is your slate?
10. This is my coat.
11. These are her books.
12. Those are our pencils.
(b) “That coat is yours’ అను వాక్యములోని yours అను మాటకు బదులు your అను మాటను ఉపయోగించి ‘That is your cont’ అని వ్రాయవచ్చును.
Soda mine, ours, hers, yours, theirs
ఆను వానికి బదులుగా my, our, her, your, their అనునవి ఉపయోగించి వ్రాయుము.
1. This cap is mine.
2. That pen is yours.
3. Those slates are theirs.
4. Is this book hers?
5. These pencils are yours.
6. Are these shoes yours?
7. Is this doll mine?
8. This gown is hers.
9. The garden is theirs.
10. Are those books yours?
11. This house is not ours.
12. These caps are not theirs.

4. The Adjective (విశేషణము)

 

Rama is a good boy’ ‘He saw a white horse’ అను వాక్యములలోని good, white అనుమాటలు ఏమి తెలియజేయును? రాముడెట్టి గుణముగలవాడో, గుఱ్ఱమెట్టి రంగుగలదో చెప్పుచున్నవి. ‘He gave me six mangoes,’ ‘I saw two men’ అను వాక్యములలోని six, two అనుమాటలు ఏమి తెలియజేయును? పండ్ల సంఖ్యను, మనుష్యుల సంఖ్యను చెప్పుచున్నవి. “There is much water in the pond”; “Give me some bread” అనువాక్యములలో much, some అనునవి నీరు ఎక్కువ యనియు, రొట్టె కొంత అనియు, అయా వస్తువులు పరిమితిని చెప్పుచున్నవి. ఇట్టి మాటలు Adjectives (విశేషణములు) అనబడును.
2. వస్తువుల గుణములనుగాని, పరిమితినిగాని, సంఖ్యనుగాని తెలియజేయు మాటలు Adjectives (విశేషణములు) అనబడును. ఉదా: black, small, big, short, four, little, all etc.
Def:-  An Adjective is a word which tells the kind or quantity.
Ex: a black horse, little money, two boys.
Ex8
Point out the Adjectives and the Nouns they qualify :- ఈ క్రిందివానిలోని Adjectives చెప్పి అవి ఏ nounsను qualify చేయునో చెప్పుము కా
(a) 1. This is a black pen.
2. Gopal is a good boy.
3. The sky is blue.
4. It is a red flower.
5. He has a short pencil.
6. It is a small book.
7. He has a big house.
8. The wall is white.
9. A green leaf is on the table.
10. The milk is sweet.
11. Rama is lazy.
12. I have three pencils and two pens.
13. He is the tallest boy in the class.
14. The earth is round.
15. There are twelve houses in this street.
16. This is a fat cat.

(b) 1. I saw a tall tree.
2. This bad boy struck that little girl.
3. A strong man rode on a large horse.
4. A white dog ran after a black goat.
5. He is a young man.
6. All the boys left the class.
7. The old man spoke very kindly.
8. Tell those men to go away.
9. The bat has very soft wings.
10. He carries a thin stick.
11. Rama is a clever boy.
12. This room contains ten boys.
13. There are two books in the box.
14. Give me some rice.
15. Many men do like that.

Ex. 8 A. Fill up the blanks with Adjectives :-
ఈ క్రింది వానిలోని ఖాళీస్థలములను Adjectives తో పూర్తి చేయుముః 1. Rama has a — –pen. 2. The boy wears a——coat. 3. There are
——– clouds in the sky. 4. The mangoes are —5. He has — hands. 6. The night is—– 7. There are——flowers in the basket 8. The chair has –legs. 9. He sleeps on a — bed.  10. The stone is—— 11The elephant is a –. –animal. 12. His book has a —-cover. 13. I saw an —-man.14. A  —–boy is playing in the street. 15. It is a——-house. 16. His cap is——17.I see—-flowers in the——grass. 18.
Govind is an —- — boy.

Ans: 1. costly
2. winter
3. white
4. ripe
5. long
6. dark
7. many
8. four
9. soft
10. heavy
11. huge
12. thick
13. old
14. little
15. big
16. pretty
17. yellow, green
18. idle.

Ex. 8 B

ఈ క్రింది జాబితాలలో (2) వ జాబితాలో నిNounsకు తగిన Adjectives ను (1)వ జాబితాలో నుండి ఏరి చెప్పుము.

(1) స జాబితా                      (2) వ జాబితా                          (1) స జాబితా                                             (2) ప జాబితా
1. Cold                                 Soil                                        1. Tall                                                         Walk
2. Cool                                 Street                                     2. Full                                                        Girl
3. Soft                                  Drink                                      3. Pleasant                                               dog
4. Hard                                Building                                  4. Warm                                                    lane
5. Day                                  Mind                                      5. Strong                                                   Moon
6. Narrow                             House                                   6.Hungry                                                   Clothing
7.Broad                                Breeze                                   7. kind                                                       Copy
8. Dirty                               Child                                       8. long                                                        Child
9. Large                              Weather                                 9. True                                                       Treatment
10. Little                              Bed                                      10. Sharp                                                     Constitution
11. Spacious                       Limps                                   11. Pretty                                                     Knife
12. Swift                             Water                                   12. Truthful                                                 Boy

Ex. 8. C
(a) Model Sentences: Milk is white. Life is short.
ఈ క్రింది (a) జాబితాలో Nouns కు తగిన Adjectives ను (b) జాబితాలో నుండి ఎంచి పై చూపిన వాక్యములవంటి వాక్యములను వ్రాయుము.
(a)                                                                              (b)
1. Iron                                    7. Cotton                              Green                   Cold
2. Gold                                   8. Air                                    Sweet                   Bright
3. God                                   9. Blood                                Red                      Hot
4. sugar                                 10. Silver                               Soft                      Great
5.Bread                                  11. Marble.                           Heavy                   Light
6. Grass                                   12.Silk                                 Useful                   White

1. Table 2. Dog 3. Sky 4. Ball 5. Well 6. Coat 7. Road 8. Moon 9. Pencil 10. Sun 11. Benches 12. Stones 13. Knives 14. Roses 15. Clouds.

Add suitable Adjectives to the following Nouns:- ఈ క్రింది నామవాచకములకు తగిన విశేషణములు చేర్చుము

1. Boxes 2.lions 3. day 4. house 5. fields 6. hill 7. flower 8. wheels 9. town 10. school 11. knives 12. book 13. grass 14. sky 15. room 16. street 17. sea 18. soldier 19. boy 20. friend 21. fox 22. milk 23. horse 24. mountains 25. wall 26. mistakes 27. stick 28. skin 29. stone.

Add suitable Nouns to these Adjectives :- ఈ క్రింది విశేషణములకు తగిన నామవాచకములు చేర్చుము :-
1. Hard 2. pretty 3. new 4. yellow 5. great 6. learned 7. brave 8. big 9. clever 10. good 11. large 12. red 13. blue. 14. green 15. white 16.black 17. dear 18. these 19. round 20. sweet 21. sharp 22. heavy 23. high 24. bright 25. cunning 26. five 27.some 28. young 29. bold 30.idle 31. old 32. short 33. small. 34. many 35. bad 36. true 37. kind 38. dark 39. deep 40. long 41.broad 42.second 43. fourth.

5. The Adverb(క్రియావిశేషణము)

“The boy spoke loudly” అను వాక్యములోని loudly అను మాట ఏమి తెలియజేయుచున్నది? పిల్లవాడు ఎట్లు మాట్లాడెనో చెప్పుచున్నది; కనుక !oudly అనుమాట spoke అను Verb యొక్క అర్ధమును విశేషించుచున్నది.
2. “Rama is a very good boy” అను వాక్యములోని very అను మాట ఏమి తెలియజేయుచున్నది? రాముడు ఎంతమంచివాడో చెప్పుచున్నది. కాబట్టి very అను మాట good అను adjective యొక్క అర్ధమును విశేషించుచున్నది. “The man walks very slowly” అను వాక్యములోని very అను మాట ఏమి తెలియజేయుచున్నది ? ఆ మనుష్యుడు ఎంత నెమ్మదిగా నడుచుచున్నాడో తెలియజేయుచున్నది. కాబట్టి very అను మాట slowly అను adverb యొక్క అర్ధమును విశేషించుచున్నది. ఇట్టి మాటలు
Adverbs అనబడును.
క్రియలు తెలియజేయుపనులు ఏ విధంగా జరుగునో, ఎక్కడ జరుగునో, ఎప్పుడు జరుగునో, ఎంతవరకు జరుగునో, మొదలగు విషయములను తెలియజేయు మాటలు విశేషణముల పరిమితిని, ఇతర క్రియావిశేషణముల పరిమితిని, (degree) తెలియజేయు మాటలు, Adverbs (క్రియా విశేషణములు) అనబడును. ఉ: loudly, fast, quickly, here, there, now, then, to- day, to-morrow, yesterday, quite, very, not etc.

Def:- An Adverb is a word which qualifies (or adds to the meaning of) a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Point out the Adverbs and the words they modify in:-

1. He sat down quickly.
2. You sat there.
3. He is sleeping now.
4. He writes quickly.
5. The horse runs fast.
6. This horse is very black.
7. They came to see me yesterday.
8. I told him then.
9. The girl sings sweetly.
10. The boy writes well.
11. He will come tomorrow.
12. He is coming here to-day.
13. He never speaks to me.
14. The fox jumped again.
15. He always tells lies.
16. They will walk back tomorrow.
17: Once there was a king.
18. The boy went away to his house.
19. The boy walks slowly up.
20. He tried once.
21. He is quite right.
22. He will always try to be good.

Fill up the blanks with Adverbs:-
ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములోని ఖాళీస్థలములను Adverbs తో పూర్తిచేయుము :-
1. The horse runs ————–2. I want to sit ——-3. I am —
——weak. 4. He sat down— 5. The boy is crying  —-6. The man speaks ——loudly. 7. Will you come —-? 8. He will – — come back. 9. The teacher spoke to me very—– 10. He wrote the letter – 11. He will go to Madras— 12. The cow walks—–13. Rama loves his son—14. The boy went—— 15. I met him —-16. He gets up—-17.——–tell lies. 18. There was—– a king. 19. The sun shines—–

Ans: 1. fast 2. down 3. very 4. suddenly 5. aloud 6. very 7. soon 8. surely 9. kindly 10. yesterday 11. to-morrow 12. slowly 13. deeply 14. home 15. unexpectedly 16. early 17. never 18. once 19. brightly.

Ex. 11 B.
Fill up the blanks with suitable Adjectives or Adverbs :-


1. He broke — –the door. 2. The horse broke —- and ran away.   3. He kept to his studies. 4. A post has fallen —-in your office. 5. I felt at the time of the examination. 6. I was taken—soon after I came home. 7. The lion was set —–8. He made —the loss. 9. We ran —- of funds. 10. Your argument does not hold —-. 11. He was tried and found 12. He struck the man—-

Ans: 1. open 2. loose 3. close 4. vacant 5. tired 6. ill 7. free 8. good 9. short 10. water 11. guilty or wanting 12. dead or down.

6. The Preposition(విభక్త్యర్థపదములు)

“The book is on the table” అను వాక్యములో on అను మాట యేయే వస్తువులకు గల సంబంధమును (అనగా పైన క్రింద, ప్రక్కన, etc.)
తెలియజేయును? table అను noun నకు book అను noun నకు గల సంబంధమును తెలియజేయును.
“He is kind to me” అను వాక్యములో to అను మాట me అను pronoun నకు kind అను adjective నకు గల సంబంధమును తెలియజేయును. I swim in the river అను వాక్యములో in అను మాట, river అను noun నకు swim అను verb నకు గల సంబంధమును తెలియజేయును.
ఒక noun నకు లేక pronoun నకు మరియొక మాటకును గల సంబంధమును తెలియజేయు మాటలు Prepositions (విభక్త్యర్థపదములు) a. with, by, for, from, of, in, on, at, upon, to etc. Def:- A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun, and some other word.
A preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun that comes after it. The noun or pronoun is said to be the object of the prepostion.

తెలుగు భాషలో విభక్తి ప్రత్యయములు చాలా భాగము Prepositions వలె పనిచేయును.
“In the book”=’5”
ఇంగ్లీషు భాషలో preposition (in) నామవాచకమునకు గాని సర్వనామమునకుగాని పూర్వము వచ్చును. తెలుగు భాషలో విభక్తి ప్రత్యయము వానికి తరువాత వచ్చును.
Point out Preposition in :-
Ex. 12
ఈ క్రింది వానిలో Prepositions చెప్పుము.
1. He rides on a horse. 2. The book is on the desk. 3. The box is in the room. 4. I am going from Bombay to Madras. 5. He fell into the well. 6. I saw him at the gate. 7. He beat the dog with a stick. 8. The lesson is about the tiger. 9. Here is a present for you. 10. The sun gives us light during the day. 11. He spoke to the elephant. 12. The elephant is between the two horses. 13. He stood by the door. 14. I am loved by him. 15. He went through the wood. 16. The box is under the table. 17. The leg of the dog is broken. 18. The boys go home after school. 19. The bench is near the wall. 20. The boy stood before the teacher. 21. There is a horse behind the elephant. 22. There are many pupils in the school. 23. The children played with him. 24. I saw him during the battle. 25. Look at the sky. Ex. 12 A
Fill in the blanks with Prepositions :-
ఈ క్రింది వానిలో ఖాళీస్థలములను Prepositions తో పూరిరేయుము :-
3. The boy is the class. 4. The mat is
see
1. The map is— the wall. 2. There is water —- the tank. the floor. 5. We our eyes. 6. The chair is -the wall. 7. Chairs are wood. 8. The girl goes–school. 9. The child plays — a ball. 10. The boy came—the room. 11. He took a pen—the box. 12. I sold the book-sixty paise. 13. He has a cap his head. 14. He smells —- his nose. 15. He put the piece of bread —- his mouth. 16. He has a cap—- his hand. 17. The teacher sat —- the two boys. 18. There is water — the bridge.

1. The Conjunction (adj)

‘Ram and Gopal are brothers’ and అనుమాట వేనిని కలుపుచున్నది? Ram, Gopal అను నామవాచకములను కలుపుచున్నది. ‘Hecan readand write’ అను వాక్యములో and అను మాట వేనిని కలుపుచున్నది? ‘He can read; He can write’ అను వాక్యములను కలుపుచున్నది. ‘I want penor pencil’ అను వాక్యములో or అనునది వేనిని So? ‘I want a pen, I want a pencil’ e కలుపుచున్నది. ఇట్టి మాటలు Conjunctions (సముచ్చయములు) అనబడును. వాక్యములను గాని, మాటలనుగాని కలుపు మాటలు Conjunctions (5v5jobáva) ca.: and, but, or, because, therefore, as, until, unless, although etc.
Def: A Conjunction is a word used merely to join together words or sentences.
Ex. 13. Point out the Conjunctions in:
ఈ క్రింది వానిలోని Conjunctions చెప్పుము.
(a) 1. Govind and Krishna are good boys. 2. He is very clever but lazy. 3. The boy is good and clever. 4. Give me a pen or a pencil. 5. The boy can only read but cannot write. 6. The cow and the calf will be sold. 7. You must stay there or go. 8. The man is poor but very honest. 10. He or his brother has done it. 11. The boy is lazy or dull. The following exercise and Ex. 13.B. may be taken up after Chapter IX is finished.
9. The horse is lost or stolen.
(b) 1. Rama and Gopal are brothers. 2. The man is tall and handsome. 3. The man is happy, though he is poor. 4. I think that you must go. 5. Do not go out, unless it is finished. 6. Be silent, while I am talking. 7. I will wait, till you are ready. 8. You cannot go out, as it is raining. 9. His father believed him, because he always speaks the truth. 10. The man is rich, but very mean. 11. Neither Ram nor Gopal came to school to-day. 12. He struck both me and my brother. 13. Tell me if you broke the window. 14. Do not throw stones, lest you should hurt someone. 15. He is either deaf or dumb.
Ex. 13 A. Split up each of the sentences in Ex. 13 (a) into separate
sentences.
Ex. 13 (a)లోని ప్రతివాక్యమును రెండేసి వాక్యముల క్రింద విడదీయుము. Ex. 13. B. (a) Fill in the blanks with suitable Conjuctions:

ఈ క్రింది వానిలో ఖాళీస్థలములను తగిన Conjunctions తో పూర్తి చేయుము. 1. He sang —-she danced. 2. Rama is strong — -he is a coward. 3. Krishna —- I were in Tuni then. 4. I like sugar – my sister does not. 5. the sun is hot now, I shall not go out. 6. the teacher entered the class, the pupils got up. 7. You can have coffee tea. 8. Portia is—beautiful— -good. 9. You will pass —- you work hard. 10. You cannot pass you work hard. 11. You must help me —- I cannot join the college. 12. Two-Two make four. 13. Govind has stolen-Rama has stolen. 14. The crops failed —- there were no rains. 15. They went on playing —-it became dark. 16. The train had left —- I went to the station. 17. He was not only clever humble. 18. The train started – I reached the station. 19. come in–go home.
Ans: 2.but 5. as 6. when 7. or 8. both 9. if 10. unless 11. otherwise 13. or 14. because 15. till 16. when 17. but 18. before 19. either, or.

b) Rewrite the following as correct sentences supplying suitable Conjunctions wherever necessary

అవసరమైనచోట తగిన Conjunctions ఉపయోగించుచు ఈ క్రింది వానిని సరియైన వాక్యములుగా తిరిగి వ్రాయుము.
1. I want paper pen.
2. Give me a pen a pencil.
3. Take your book read.
4. Govind Krishna are good friends.
5. I know him I do not like him.
6. The cow the calf are in the field.
7. The boy is good dull.
8. The cow the calf is in the field.
9. The boy may stay here go home.
10. Go see where he is.
11. You may go home sleep.
12. Govind, Krishna has done this.
13. He is rich happy.
14. He will come telephone?
15. You lied your parent.
16. Asleep awake, night day he is worried.

Ans:- 1. and 2.or 5. but 7.but 8. or 9. or 12. or 14. either, or 15. Either you lied or your parent. 16. or, or
Ex. 13 C.
Combine the following with suitable Conjunctions:- ఈ క్రింది వానిని తగిన Conjunctions తో కలుపుము.
1. The boy can read. The boy can write.
2. The book is on the desk. The slate is on the desk.
3. Sita is a good girl. Savithri is a good girl.
4. The man is deaf. The man is dumb.
5. The boy is clever. The boy is careless.
6. I met Rama. I met Krishna.
7. He did the work quickly. He did the work neatly.
8. He has stolen the letter. His brother has stolen the letter.
9. I cannot lift the stone. It is very heavy.
10. I will give you the book. I will give you its price.
11. The boy is young. The boy is very strong.
12. Will you have tea? Will you have coffee?
13. The boy is clever. The boy is industrious.
14. I must find the book. I must buy another.
15. The boy is going to school. The girl is going to school.
16. The boy is in the room. His father is in the room.
17. I must sleep. I am tired.
18. To risk a battle is the problem. Not to risk a battle is the problem.

Ans:- 1. The boy can read and write. 2. The book and the slate are on the desk. 3. Sita and Savithri are good girls. 4. The man is deaf and dumb. 5. The boy is clever, but careless. 8. He or his brother has stolen the letter. 9. because 10. the book
or its price. 12. tea or coffee. 14. or 16. The boy or his father is in the room. (The boy and his father are in the room) 18.or.

8. The Interjection, భావోద్రేక ప్రకటనార్ధకము)

హఠాత్తుగా మనసులో కలుగు సంతోషమునుగాని, ఆశ్చర్యమునుగాని, విచారమునుగాని, భీతినిగాని తెలియజేయు మాటలు Interjections (భావోద్రేక ప్రకటనార్థములు) అనబడును. ఉ: Ah! Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Ho! etc. Def: An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden and strong feeling such as joy, surprise, sorrow, fear etc..
The Article
A, an, the : ఈ మూడు మాటలు Adjectives లో చేరినవయినను వీనికి Articles అని ప్రత్యేకముగా పేరు ఈయబడినది.
Use of the Articles-a and an
వీనిని one లేక army అను అర్ధమునందు ఉపయోగింతురు. There is a book on the table. (=one). How many sides has a triangle ? (=any).
(2) అచ్చు యొక్క ధ్వనితో ప్రారంభించు మాటల ముందు an ఉపయోగింపబడును. ఉ: an ox, an ant, an hour, an heir. An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound.
(3) హల్లులు యొక్క ధ్వనితో నారంభించు మాటలముందు a వచ్చును. ఉ: a boy, a cat, a house, a year, a young man. A is used before words beginning with a consonant
sound.

Note : 1 మాటకు మొదట వచ్చిన
(a) U అనుదానికి “యు” కారోచ్చారణ ఉన్నపుడును
(b) O అనుదానికి “ప” కారోచ్చారణ ఉన్నపుడును అవి హల్లులగును. ఉ:
(c) a unit, a useful book, a European, a University,
(d) a one rupee note, such a one. Jesh alimum of Note: 2. Silent ‘h’ 35s an 403383. &: an hour, an honour, an heir.
Ex. 14. Put a or an before the following.

1. house 2. ox 3. man 4. cow 5. egg 6. tree 7. ass 8. fox 9. elephant 10. orange 11. mango 12. axe 13. box 14. old man 15. island 16. goat 17. one 18. unit 19. hour 20. honour 21. history 22. historical 23. owl 24. eagle 25. horse 26. ant 27.boy 28. eye 29. order 30. iron 31. frog 32. owner 33. goose 34. umpire 35. book 36. uproar 37. urgent business 38. uneven ground 39. European 40. Umbrella 41. useful servant 42. hotel.

Ans: an for 15, 19, 20, 23, 32, 34, 36 to 38, 40
a for 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 39, 41, 42.

Use of Capitals: 1. Jars, 2. Poetry 6 ప్రతి line మొదటిమాట, 3. మనుష్యుల పేర్లు. 4. దేశముల పేర్లు, 5. పట్టణముల పేర్లు, 6. వారముల పేర్లు, 7. నెలల పేర్లు, 8. నదుల పేర్లు, 10. పర్వతముల పేర్లు, 11. I, God అను మాటలు, 12. God ను సూచించు (a) rouns (Almighty, Lord), (b) pronouns (Thou, He), 13. 5
వాక్యపు మొదటి మాట Capitals తో నారంభింపవలెను.
Ex 15. Put Capitals where they are required:
(a) Once i went to calcutta, there i bathed in the river ganges. one sunday in the month of february i went to see a friend. he was not at home he went to the church to offer his prayers to god. my friend asked me,” why did you not come to the station?” i said “my father stopped me to look to some urgent business.” gopal and krishna are very close friends. they will leave madras for bombay next monday. rama re- turned last week from england. the indian ocean lies to the south of india the himalayas are the highest mountains in the
world.
(b)a hungry spider made a web of threads so very fine

your tiny fingers scare could feel the slender little line. Subject and Predicate

Subject                                  Predicate
He                                          laughed
Cats                                        catch mice
I                                              ask you this question
Rama                                      was rich
The table                                 is made of wood.

పైవిధముగా వాక్యములను రెండు భాగముల క్రింద విభజింప వచ్చును. ఒక భాగము Noun గాని Pronounగాని అయియుండును. దానిని గురించియే – ఆ వాక్యము చెప్పును. దానినే Subject అందురు.
రెండవ భాగము ఆ Subject ను గురించి చెప్పును. దానినే Predicate అందురు. కాబట్టి Subject గురించి చెప్పునది అంతయు Predicate
అనబడును.
Def: The Subject of a sentence is noun or noun equiva- lent about which something is said.
Def: The Predicate is all that tells about the subject. Predicate లో ముఖ్య భాగమును Verb అందురు. ఉ: laughed, catch, was, ask, is made.
Def: The essential part of the predicate is the verb. Subject, Verb, and Object కర్త. క్రియ, కర్మ,
“Rama killed a tiger” ఈ వాక్యములో చంపుటయను పని జరిగినది. ఈ పనిని ఎవరు చేసిరి? రాముడు చేసెను. ఏమి చేసెను? చంపుట యను పనిని చేసెను. దీని ఫలమేది పొందినది? పులి పొందినది. కాబట్టి వాక్యమందు సాధారణముగా మూడు భాగములుండును.
1. ఒక పనిని చేయువాడు 2. వాడు చేయు పని 3. ఆ పనియొక్క ఫలమనుభవించువాడు.
1. పనిని చేయువానిని తెలుపుమాట Subject(కర్త).
(“కర్త” అను పదమునకు సరియైన ఇంగ్లీషు మాట “Doer or Agent” కాని ‘కర్త’ “Subject” అనునవి పర్యాయపదములుగా వాడబడుచున్నవి. మనుష్యులను మాత్రమే గాక సమస్త ప్రాణికోటిని, ప్రాణములేని వానిని తెలిపెడు మాటలు కూడ Subject గా నుండవచ్చును.)
2. వాడు చేయుపనిని తెలుపుమాట Verb ( క్రియ).
3. వాడు చేసిన పని యొక్క ఫలమును పొందు వానిని తెలియజేయు మాట Object(కర్మ).
Subject(కర్త) యును Verb (క్రియ) యును లేకుండ వాక్యమేర్పడదు. Object (కర్మ) ఒకప్పుడుండును, ఒకప్పుడుండదు. ఇది (క్రియ)ను బట్టి
యుండును.
ఉ :1. “Rama came” అను వాక్యములో Rama అనునది Subject(కర్త). camme అనునది Verb (క్రియ), ఇచట Object (కర్మ) లేదు. 2. “The cow gives milk” అను వాక్యములో cow అనునది Subject(కర్త), gives అనునది Verb (క్రియ), milk అనునది Object (కర్మ).
N.B. – యీ దిగువ మాదిరి వాక్యములలో subject లోపించును. ఉ
‘ sit down’; ‘come here’; అనగా (you) sit down; (You) come here గనుక యీ రెండు వాక్యములలో you అను Subject లోపించినది.

How to find out Subject, Verb and Object

కర్మను కనిపెట్టు విధము
మొదట వాక్యములోని Verb (క్రియ)ను కనిపెట్టవలెను. ఇది సులభము. ఏలన Verb(క్రియ) ఎల్లప్పుడు ఒక పనిని తెలియజేయుమాట అయియుండును. Verb నకు వెనుక ఎవడు, ఎవరు, ఏది, ఏవి అనుమాటలలో నొకదానిని ఉంచి ప్రశ్నవేయగా వచ్చుజవాబే Subject (కర్త) అగును. ఆ Verb నకు వెనుక ఎవనిని, ఎవరిని, దేనిని, వేనిని, అను మాటలలో నేదో యొకదానిని ఉంచి ప్రశ్నవేయగా వచ్చు జవాబు Object(కర్మ) అగును. ఒకప్పుడు Verb నకు twoobjects రెండు కర్మలు) ఉండును. ఉ:- ‘Rama gave me a book’ ఇక్కడ me, book అను Objects (50)
N.B :- వాక్యరచనలో ఇంగ్లీషు భాషకును, తెలుగు భాషకును గల భేదము: ఇంగ్లీషు భాషలో సాధారణముగా మొదట Subject, తర్వాత Verb, తర్వాత Object (S.V.O.) వచ్చును. తెలుగుభాషలో సాధారణముగా మొదట Sub- ject, తరువాతObject, తరువాత Verb వచ్చును. (S.O.V.)
ఉ: Rama killed the tiger రాముడు పులిని చంపెను.
Ex. 16: Break up the following sentences into Subject and Predicate.
1. Gopal had a friend. 2. He met his friend in the hotel. 3. We gave him five rupees. 4. Once there lived a king. 5. Wl.cre were you last year? 6. After six months he came back. 7. He asked Krishna for his book. 8. Why did you fail in the exami- nation? 9. Give me back my pen. 10. Have you any money with you? 11. How many legs have you? 12. How many boys are there in this class? 13. When did he die? 14. Whom do you punish?
Ex. 16. A. Pick out the Verbs in Ex. 16.
Ex. 17. Pick out the Subjects in:-
1. The pen is black. 2. They have books in their hands. 3. Why did you fail in the examination? 4. Where do you go now? 5. Here are two boys. 6. Whose help do you take? 7. The cow is eating grass. 8. There are two pencils on the desk. 9. Give me your book. 10. Where is your book? 11. Show me your hand. 12 Where is your book? 13. Are these your pens? 14. Have you a cap? 15. Who broke the slate? 16. Whose book is
this?
(b) 1. Good boys do not lose their books. 2. Are there many boys in your school? 3. Have they seen a tiger? 4. How many books have they? 5. Whom did you see? 6. What does the man want?

Ex. 18. Pick out the Objects in:-

  1.  The boy learns his lesson.
  2.  I saw the tiger.
  3.  I put my pen on the desk.
  4.  My father broke his stick.
  5.  You did not bring many books.
  6.  He often caught a lot of fish.
  7. He threw his net into the water.
  8.  He found no fish in it.
  9. What do you want?
  10. Whom do you appoint?
  11.  Whose book did you buy?

Ex. 19. Pick out the Subject, Verb, and Object in:-

  1. I heard a loud noise.
  2.  The boys showed him their copybooks.
  3.  Do not punish him.
  4.  Show me your book.
  5.  I will tell you a story tomorrow.
  6.  Sometimes we lose our books.
  7.  There are four men in the room.
  8.  Why did you leave the class?
  9.  Please give me your pen.
  10.  Did you not see him?
  11.  Take up your books.
  12.  Have you seen a camel?
  13.  Where do you get salt water?
  14.  Can you get some water?
  15.  Do you see my hand?
  16.  Get me some sugar.
  17.  Here are five pencils.
  18.  What are you doing?
  19.  Which of these fruits do you not like?
  20.  What do you want?
  21.  How does he do the work?
  22.  Has nothing been done?
  23.  Do not run away.
  24.  What did he do?
  25.  My father sent me a watch.
  26.  Gopal told me a story.
  27.  What is your name?

English Grammar Explained in Telugu

The Sentense

1. మనము మాట్లాడుకొనునపుడు గాని, వ్రాయునపుడు గాని మాటలను వాడుతాము. సాధారణంగా ఈ మాటలను విడివిడిగా కాకుండా క్రింద పేర్కొన్న విధంగా సామూహికంగా వాడుతుంటాము.
Little Jack Horner sat in a corner.

ఈ విధంగా వాడిన పదముల సముదాయాన్ని వాక్యము అని అంటాము. ఇటువంటి పదముల సముదాయం పూర్తిగా అర్ధవంతం అయినట్లయితేనే దానిని వాక్యం అని అంటాము. |

వాక్యములలోని రకములు

2. వాక్యములు నాలుగు విధములు :
1. వివరించునవి లేక నొక్కివక్కాణించునవి :Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

2. ప్రశ్నలు అడుగునవి :Where do you live?

3. ఒక అజ్ఞనుగాని (command), విన్నపమును గాని (request) బ్రతిమాలుటను గాని (entreaty) తెలియజేయునవి

  • Be quiet.
  • Have mercy upon us.

4. బలమైన మానసిక భావాలను (sudden and intense feelings) తెలియజేయునవి :

  • How cold the night is!
  • What a shame 1

ఒక statement ను నొక్కి వక్కాణించే మాటల సముదాయాన్ని కాని ఇచ్చువానిని Declarative లేక Assertive వాక్యములు అని అంటాము.
ప్రశ్నను అడుగు వాక్యమును interrogative sentence అని అంటాము.

ఆజ్ఞను ఇచ్చు వాక్యమునుగాని విన్నపము చేయు వాక్యమునుగాని imperative (ఆవశ్యమైన) sentence అని అంటాము. ఆకస్మికముగా ఒక అభిప్రాయమును (strong feeling) బయటికి చెప్పు వాక్యమును Exclamatory sentence అని అంటాము.

English Grammar Explained In Telugu

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

అధ్యాయము 2

Subject And Predicate

3. మనము ఒక వాక్యాన్ని వ్రాయునపుడు గాని మాట్లాడునపుడు గాని
(1) ఒక వ్యక్తికి గాని ఒక వస్తువుకు గాని పేరు ఇవ్వడం జరుగుతుంది.
(2) ఆ వ్యక్తి గురించిగాని ఆ వస్తువు గురించి గాని ఏదో కొంత చెప్పడం జరుగుతుంది.

ఇంకో విధంగా చెప్పాలంటే, వాక్యములో పేర్కొనడానికి subject (కర్త) ఉండాలి. అదే విధంగా ఆ వ్యక్తిని గురించి గాని ఆ వస్తువును గురించి గాని ఏదో కొంత చెప్పే predicate వుండాలి. అంటే ప్రతి వాక్యంలో రెండు ప్రధాన భాగములు ఉంటాయి :-

(1) మనము మాట్లాడే వ్యక్తి గాని వస్తువుగాని ఉన్నట్టిది మొదటి భాగము. దీనిని subject అంటారు
(2) Subject ను గురించి చెప్పునది రెండవ భాగము. దీనిని predicate అంటారు.

4.సాధారణంగా వాక్యములోని subject భాగము వాక్యమునకు మొదట ఉంటుంది కాని కొన్ని సార్లు మాత్రం predicate తర్వాత subject వస్తుంది.

  • Here comes the bus.
  • Sweet are the uses of adversity.

5.Imperative sentences లో (అవశ్యము ఈ పని చేయవలయును అని చెప్పునవి) subject ను వదలి వేయడం జరుగుతుంది.

  • Sit down.[Here the Subject You is understood]
  • Thank him.[Here too the Subject You is understood]

అభ్యాసము 1

ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలో Subject ను Predicate లను వేరు చేయండి

1. The crackling of geese saved Rome.
2. The boy stood on the burning deck.
3. Tubal Cain was a man of might.
4. Stone walls do not make a prison.
5. The singing of the birds delights us.
6. Miss Kitty was rude at the table one day.
7. He has a good memory.
8. Bad habits grow unconsciously.
9. The earth revolves around the Sun.
10. Nature is the best physician.
11. Edison invented the phonograph.
12. The sea hath many thousand grains of sand.
13. We cannot pump the ocean dry.
14. Borrowed garments never fit well.
15. The early bird catches the worm.
16. All matter is indestructible.
17. Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan.
18. We should profit from experience,
19. All roads lead to Rome.
20. A guilty conscience needs no excuse.
21. The beautiful rainbow soon faded away.
22. No man can serve two masters.
23. A sick room should be well-aired.
24. The dewdrops glitter in the sunshine.
25. I shot an arrow into the air.
26. A barking sound the shepherd hears.
27. On the top of the hill lives a hermit.

అధ్యాయము 3

The Phrase And The Clause

6. “In a corner” అను పదసముదాయమును పరిశీలించండి. దీనిని Phrases అని అంటారు. Phrase అనగా మూడు, నాలుగు పదములు ఉన్న పదబంధము అని అర్ధము. Phrases అర్థయుత మైనప్పటికి, అవి స్వతహాగా పూర్తి అర్ధాన్ని యివ్వవు. Italics ఉన్న యీ క్రింది పద సముదాయములను (జట్టులు) Phrases అని అంటారు.

  • The sun rises in the east.
  • Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
  • There came a giant to my door.
  • It was a sunset of great beauty.
  • The tops of the mountains were covered with snow.
  • show me how to do it.

7. talics ప్రింటులో నున్న ఈ క్రింది phrasesను పరిశీలించండి :

  • He has a chain of gold.
  • He has a chain which is made of gold.

పై రెండు వాక్యములలో మొదటి వాక్యములో నున్న “of gold” అను రెండు పదముల జంటను phrase అని అంటాము. రెండవ వాక్యములోని which is made of gold అను అయిదు మాటల సమూహమును Clause అని అంటాము.

ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలో పై విధంగా group గా ఉన్న పదములను clauses అంటాము.

  • People who pay their debts are trusted.
  • We cannot start while it is raining.
  • I think that you have made a mistake.

అధ్యాయము 41

Parts Of Speech

8. వాక్యములలోని పదములను వివిధములైన పేర్లతో విభజించడం జరిగింది. Grammer లో యీ విభజనను Parts of speech అని అంటాము. ఆ పదములకు గల వివిధమైన గుర్తింపులు అవి వాక్యములో చేయు పనులను బట్టి (duties) వచ్చినవి. ఈ గుర్తింపులు ఎనిమిది. అవి యివి :-

1)Noun (నామవాచకము)
2)Adjective (విశేషణము)
3)Pronoun (సర్వనామముnoun కు బదులుగా వచ్చునది)
4)Verb (క్రియ or action word)
5)Adverb (క్రియా విశేషణము అనగా verb నకు యింకొంత అర్ధమును కలుపునది.) 6) Preposition (విభక్త్యర్ధకమైన అవ్యయము. విభక్తులు అని కూడా అంటాము)
7)Conjunction (కలుపునది అనగా సముచ్ఛయము)
8)Interjection (సంతాపాద్యర్థకము అనగా సంతాపమును తెలియచేయునది) అయ్యో! అను భావము.
9)Noun. ఒక మనిషి యొక్క పేరును గాని, ఒక ప్రదేశము యొక్క పేరును గాని, ఒక వస్తువు యొక్క పేరును గాని తెలియజేయు పదమును నామవాచకము (Noun) అంటారు.

  • Akbar was a great King.
  • Kolkata is on the Hooghly.
  • The rose smells sweet.
  • The sun shines bright.
  • His courage won him honour.

గమనిక (Note): వస్తువు అనగా
(1) మనము కంటితో చూచునది, వినునది, చేతితో తాకబడునది, వాసన చూడబడునది మొదలయినవి.
(2)మనం ఊహించగలిగినవి, తాకలేనివి మరియు చూడ వీలు కానట్టివి. వీనిని English లో abstract nouns అని అంటారు. మనస్సుతో ఊహించుకోవాలి.

10. Adjective: నామవాచకమునకున్న అర్ధమునకు మరికొంత అర్ధమును కలిపిన పదమును Adjective అని అంటారు.

  • He is a brave boy.
  • There are twenty boys in this class.

11. Pronoun: నామవాచకమునకు బదులుగా వాడు పదమును Pronoun (సర్వనామము) అని అంటారు.
John is absent, because he is ill.
The books are where you left them.

12. Verb: ఒక పనిని గాని విషయమును గాని తెలియజేయు పదమును Verb అంటారు. Verb లో action (క్రియ) ఉంటుంది.
The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
Kolkata is a big city.
Iron and copper are useful metals.

13.Adverb (క్రియా విశేషణము).:Verb కు గాని, Adjective కు గాని, లేక యింకొక Adverb కు గాని మరికొంత భావమును కలుపు పదమును Adverb అని అంటారు. (add + verb = adverb)
He worked the sum quickly.
This flower is very beautiful.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.

14. Preposition. (విభక్తి ప్రత్యయము). Noun గాని pronoun గాని మరియొక పదముతో సంబంధము కలిగి యుండును. యీ సంబంధమును తెలియజేయు పదమును Preposition అంటారు.
There is a cow in the garden.
The girl is fond of music.
A fair little girl sat under a tree.

15. Conjunction (సముచ్చయము). రెండు పదములను గాని, రెండు వాక్యములను గాని కలుపు పదమును Conjunction అని అంటారు.
Rama and Hari are cousins.
Two and two make four.
I ran fast, but missed the train.

16. Interjection (ఆశ్చర్యార్ధకము). అకస్మాత్తుగా మనలో ఉద్భవించు భావావేశమును (intense feeling) తెలియజేయు పదమును Interjection అని అంటారు.
Hurrah! We have won the game.
Alas she is dead.

17. A, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, my, his, one, two అను పదములను Determiners అని అంటారు. కొన్ని Modern Grammars లో determiners ను కూడా part of speech గా గుర్తిస్తున్నారు. యివి వాని తరువాత follow అయ్యే నామవాచక భావమును కొంత తగ్గించును. ఈ గ్రామరు పుస్తకములో a, an మరియు the తప్ప మిగిలిన పై determiners ను adjective గా పరిగణించడం జరిగింది.

18. ఆయా పదములు అవి వాక్యములో చేయు పనిని బట్టి అవి ఏ part of speech కి చెందినవో గుర్తించవచ్చు. కావున ఏ పదము ఏ part of speech కి చెందినదో వాక్యమును చూడకుండా చెప్పడం కష్టము.
They arrived soon after. (Adverb)
They arrived after us. (Preposition)
They arrived after we had left. (Conjunction)
పైన ఇచ్చిన మూడు ఉదాహరణలను గమనించండి. ఒకే పదాన్ని వేరు వేరు వాక్యాల్లో వేరు వేరు parts of speech గా ఉపయోగించడం జరిగింది.

|అభ్యాసము 2

ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలో Italics ప్రింటులోనున్న పదములు ఏ భాషా విభాగమునకు చెందినవో రాయుచూ, అందుకు గల కారణములను కూడా పేర్కొనండి :

1. Still waters run deep.
2. He still lives in that house.
3.After the storm comes the calm.
4.The after effects of the drug are bad.
5.The up train is late.
6.It weighs about a pound.
7.He told us all about the battle.
8. He was only a yard off me.
9. Suddenly one of the wheels came off.
10.Mohammadans fast in the month of Ramzan.
11.He kept the fast for a week
12.He is on the committee..
13. Let us move on.
14.Sit down and rest a while.
15. I will watch while you sleep.

 

అధ్యాయము 5

The Noun :Kinds Of Nouns

19. ఒక వ్యక్తి యొక్క పేరును గాని, ఒక ప్రదేశము యొక్క పేరును గాని, ఒక వస్తువు యొక్క పేరును గాని తెలియజేయు పదమును నామవాచకము (Noun) అందురు.
గమనిక (Note: మన ఆలోచనలోనికి వచ్చు భావము కూడా భావపూరితమైన “thing” అవుతుంది. (Abstract Noun). వీనిని మానసికంగా మాత్రమే ఊహించుకోవాలి.

20. ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములను గమనించండి:
Asoka was a wise king.
ఒక ప్రత్యేకమైన గుర్తింపుగల రాజును మనము Asoka అని పిలిచాము. కాని యింకొక పదమైన ‘King’ అను పదముతో యితర రాజులను గురించి కూడా పేర్కొనవచ్చును. ఇచ్చట Asoka అను పదము Proper noun అవుతుంది. King అను పదము అందరు రాజులకు చెందుతుంది కావున common noun అవుతుంది. ఎందుకంటే king అను ఆ పదముతో ఎవరినయినా పిలవవచ్చును కాబట్టి.
అదే విధంగా : –
Sita is a Proper Noun, while girl is a Common Noun.
Hari is a Proper Noun, while boy is a Common Noun.
Kolkata is a Proper Noun, while city is a Common Noun.
India is a Proper Noun, while country is a Common Noun.

‘Girl’ అను పదము common noun. ఎందుకంటే ఆ మాటతో ఏ అమ్మాయిని అయినా పిలువవచ్చును. కాని యిచ్చట
‘Sita’ అను పేరుతో ఒకే ఒక గుర్తింపుగల అమ్మాయిని పిలుస్తాము. అంటే ‘Sita’ అను పదము proper noun.
Proper అనగా తనకు చెందిన అనే అర్ధం వస్తుంది కదా !

Definition. ( నిర్వచనము) – ఒకే రకానికి చెందిన వ్యక్తులనుగాని, వస్తువులనుగాని ఒకే పేరుతో పిలిచినట్లయితే, ఆ పదమును Common Noun అంటారు. ఒకే పేరుతో అందరిని పిలవడానికి వీలయినప్పుడు అట్టి పదము Common Noun జాబితా లోనికి వస్తుంది.

Definition. ( నిర్వచనము). ఒకే ఒక వ్యక్తికిగాని ప్రదేశానికిగాని చెందిన పేరును proper noun అని అంటాము. Proper అనగా ఒకే వ్యక్తి యొక్క గాని ప్రదేశము యొక్క గాని గుర్తింపునకు (గ్రామరులో స్వంతము అని అర్ధము.

Note. 1. Proper noun కు మొదటి అక్షరము capital letter ఉపయోగించాలి.
Note. 2. Pronouns ను కొన్నిసార్లు common nouns గా కూడా గుర్తిస్తున్నారు.

1. He was the Lukman (= the wisest man) of his age.
2. Kalidas is often called the Shakespeare (= the greatest dramatist) of India.
Collective nouns మరియు abstract nouns, common nouns లో భాగమే.

21. మనుష్యుల గుంపునుగాని, కొన్ని వస్తువుల సముదాయమునుగాని ఏకంగా ఒక్క పదంలో తెలియజేయు పదాలను Collective Nouns అంటారు.

Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee.
A fleet= a collection of ships or vessels.
An army= a collection of soldiers.
A crowd= a collection of people.
The police dispersed the crowd.
The French army was defeated at Waterloo.
The jury found the prisoner guilty.
A herd of cattle is passing.

22. ఒక లక్షణమును గురించి గాని, ఒక చర్యను (action) గురించి గాని, ఒక పరిస్థితిని (State or condition) గురించి గాని చెప్పు పదమును Abstract nouns అని అంటారు. ఇవి భావరూపములు.

Quality – Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wis- dom, bravery. (మంచి తనము, జాలి, తెలుపు, చీకటి, గట్టితనము, కాంతి, నిజాయితీ, జ్ఞానము, ధైర్యము)
Action.- Laughter, theft, movement, judgement, hatred. (నవ్వు, దొంగతనము, కదలిక, తీర్పు, ద్వేషము) Laughter లో నవ్వు భావరూపం. Laughing అను verb లో నవ్వు కార్యరూపము.
State.- Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty. (పసితనము, బాల్యము, యవ్వనము, బానిసత్వము, నిద్ర, జబ్బు, మరణము, బీదతనము)

Arts (కళల పేర్లు), Sciences (శాస్త్రముల పేర్లు), (grammer, music, chemistry మొదలగు పదములు) కూడా Abstract nouns (వ్యాకరణము, సంగీతము, రసాయనశాస్త్రము)

కంటికి కనిపించనివి, చేతికి చిక్కనివి, కేవలం మనస్సుతో మాత్రమే అవగాహన చేసుకోగలిగిన వన్నియు Abstract nouns. Abstract nouns ను అర్ధం చేసుకోవడానికి యింకొక ఆధారము కావలయును. “మరణము” అను పదము (death) Abstract Noun కాని మరణము అంటే ఎంత భయంకరంగా ఉంటుందో తెలుసుకోవడానికి యింకొక వస్తువయిన శవము కావలయును. మరణమును గాని, నవ్వును గాని ఇతర abstract nouns ను గాని ఒక చోటి నుండి ఇంకొక చోటికి మార్చజాలము. అలానే పర్వతము, సముద్రము, గాలి మొదలగు పంచభూతములను కూడా ఇంకొక చోటికి మార్చజాలము. ఒక విద్యార్ధి యొక్క తెలివిని కంటితో చూడగలమా? ఒక చోటినుండి ఇంకొక చోటికి మార్చగలమా? Marks
sheet ను బట్టి మాత్రమే తెలుసుకుంటాం.

23. Abstract Nouns ఈ క్రింది విధముగా form అవుతాయి.
1. Adjectives నుండి
Kindness from kind; honesty from honest.
(kindness – దయ (Abstract Noun. He has kindness అతనికి దయ ఉన్నది.
(kind) దయగల (Adjective) He is a kindman. అతను దయగల వాడు.
ఎటువంటివాడు అనేదాని జవాబు. He అనే pronoun ను వర్ణిస్తుంది.

2. Verbs నుండి Obedience from obey, growth from grow.

3. Common nouns Childhood from child;
slavery from slave.
slave 3 (common noun)
skavery (abstract noun) బానిసత్వము.
ఇచ్చట slavery అను పదము ఒకరి పరిస్థితిని తెలియచేస్తుంది కదా!

24. Nouns కు ఇంకొక వర్గీకరణ (classification) కూడా ఉన్నది. అవి countable nouns (లెక్కించదగినవి) మరియు unaccountable nouns (లెక్కించవీలు కానివి)
Countable Nouns: book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.
Uncountable nouns: milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty

Countable Nouns కు ఏకవచన – బహువచన రూపములు ఉన్నవి. కాని Uncountable nouns కు ఏకవచన – బహువచన రూపములు లేవు. ఇన్ని లీటర్ల పాలు అంటాముగాని, ఇన్ని చుక్కల పాలు అనము.

అభ్యాసము 3

ఈ క్రింది వాక్యములలో nouns ను గుర్తించి వాటి వర్గీకరణను (classification) పేర్కొనుము.
1. The crowd was very big..
2. Always speak the truth.
3. We all love honesty.
4. Our class consists of twenty pupils.
5. The elephant has great strength.
6. Solomon was famous for his wisdom.
7. Cleanliness is next to godliness.
8. We saw a fleet of ships in the harbour.
9. The class is studying grammar.
10. The Godavari overflows its banks every year.
11. A committee of five was appointed.
12. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.
13. The soldiers were rewarded for their bravery.
14. Without health there is no happiness.
15. He gave me a bunch of grapes.
16. I recognized your voice at once.
17. Our team is better than theirs.
18. Never tell a lie.
19. Wisdom is better than strength.
20. He sets a high value on his time.
21. I believe in his innocence.
22. This room is thirty feet in length.
23. I often think of the happy days of childhood.
24. The streets of some of our cities are noted for their crookedness.
25. What is your verdict, gentlemen of the jury?

అభ్యాసము 4

ఈ క్రింది వానికి collective noun పదములు రాయండి.
(1) Cattle
(2) Soldiers
(3) Sailors
Adjectives గా బాలురకు ఉన్న ఈ క్రింది లక్షణములను abstract nouns గా మార్చి వ్రాయుము.
(1) Lazy
(2) Cruel
(3) Brave
(4) Foolish

అభ్యాసము 5

క్రింద ఇవ్వబడిన adjectives ను abstract nouns గా మార్చి వ్రాయుము.

Adjectives : Definition & Types with Examples in Telugu

Adjectives (విశేషణములు)

Adjectives ఏడు విధములు,
1. Qualitative,
2. Numeral,
3.Quantitative,
4. Demon- strative,
5. Distributive,
6. Interrogative,
7. Relative

1. వస్తువులు (things) ఎట్టి గుణములు గలవియో చెప్పుమాటలు Adjectives of Quality end. &: a tall tree, a bold man, a dark room, an old house..

Def. Adjectives of quality show of what kind a thing is.

2. వస్తువులు (things) ఎన్ని గలవో, లేక యే orderలో నున్నవో చెప్పుమాటలు Adjectives of number అనబడును. ఉ: two boys, three cows, ten men, few rupees, many goats, all men, fifth boy, first place.

Def. Adjectives of Number (Numeral Adjectives) show how many of a thing there are or in what order. e.g. Any, some, a, an, certain, no, few, many, all, several 3 ఇన్నియని చెప్పక. వస్తువుల సంఖ్యను సూచించుటచే ఆవి Indefinite Numeral Adjectives అనబడును.

Def: Adjectives which do not denote an exact number are called Indefinite Numeral Adjectives.

Two, three, second, third అనునవి వస్తువుల సంఖ్యను సరిగా యిన్ని అనియో, ఒక వరుసలో ఇన్నవది అనియోసూచించుటచే అవి Definite Numeral Adjectives అనబడును.

Adjectives Definition And Types with Examples In Telugu

Def. Adjectives which denote some exact number or show the serial order in which a thing stands are called Definite Numeral Adjectives.

Note:- – In ‘Both’ (=the two) boys won prizes, ‘both’ is an adjective. In ‘Both’ the boys won prizes, it is best to regard both as a pronoun put in apposition to the subject (the boys); as: The boys, both of them, won prizes 2. All the children ran after the piper-The children, all of them ran after the piper. 3. వస్తువుల (things) యొక్క పరిమితిని చెప్పుమాటలు Adjectives of Quantity e. &: much rice, some milk, little
money.

Def: Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing there is.

4. వస్తువులలో (things) ఫలానా అని చూపునట్టి మాటలు Demon- stative Adjectives eod.& this book, that boy, these trees, those houses, the same book, such conduct.

Def: Demonstrative Adjectives point out which things are meant.
The adjectives these and those do not agree with the nouns kind and sort to which they refer.

Wrong
Correct

1. These kind of things.
2. Those sort of things. 1. This kind of thing.
2. Things of this kind
3. All (or many) sorts of things.
5. వస్తువులు (things) ఒక్కొక్కటిగా తీసికొనినట్లు తెలియజేయు మాటలు

Distributive Adjectives అనబడును. ఉ: each boy, every man, either pen, neither party.

Def: Distributive Adjectives show that things are taken separately.
6. What books do you read? Which boy got the prize? Whose house is this? What, Which and Whose అను మాటలు books, boy and house అను nouns కు ముందుంచబడి ప్రశ్నలు వేయుట కుపయోగపడినవి గాన, అవి Interrogative Adjectives అనబడును.

Def: What, which and whose when used with Nouns to ask questions are called Interrogative Adjectives.

7. Relative Adjectives: Which and what are sometimes used as relative adjectives.

ఈ క్రింది ఎడమవైపు రెండు వాక్యములను కలిపి ఒకే వాక్యముగా వ్రాయుము.

(A) (1) Wait for two days.
(b) He will return within that time.

Wait for two days
within which time he will return.
Within which time he will return – Adj. Clause; qualifying the noun, days.
Which-Relative adj. having for its antecedent days and qualifying the noun, time.

(B) (a) He had some money. stood.
(b) That he took with him. What money he had.
He took with him
what money he had.
Adj.

Cl. qualifying that under-

What. Rel. adj. having for its antecedent that under- stood and qualifying the noun, money.

But the generalizing relative adjectives whichever, which-so- ever; and whatever what-so-ever are much commoner; and the clauses which they introduce are always subordinate (Adv. Cl. of condition) modifying the verbs in the Principal clauses:e.g. (a) Whichever way he goes, we shall be sure to catch him. (b) Whatever step he takes, we shall be prepared.

Ex. 23A

Name the class to which each Adjective in the following belongs:

1. This is a very heavy stone.
2. Each angle is a right angle.
3. Neither party is the right.
4. I saw a lame boy.
5. The tree has several branches.
6. Every man must do his duty.
7. Many persons gathered in the street.
8. Which boy has won the prize?
9. He has much money.
10. He has lost all his wealth.
11. What books are selected?
12. Have you any money?
13. All men are mortal.
14. Most boys like cricket.
15. Either pen will do.
16. Some boys are clever.
17. I ate some bread.

Accusative of Description

This is an adjective-equivalent expressing such properties of objects as: 1. size. 2. colour. 3. age. 4. price. 5. profession of persons. In most cases, Accusative may be replaced by of + noun.

1. This plank is not the right width. (=of the right width)
2. What colour (=of what colour) is the rose?
3. She might be any age (=of any age).
4. What price (=of what price) is that article?
5. (a) What trade (=of what trade) is he?
6. (b) What part (=of what part) of speech are these words?

Use of: Some, any

1. In Negative sentences some is not used, but any is used; as:
I shall buy some mangoes. Wrong: I shall buy any mangoes.
Correct: I shall not buy any mangoes.

Note: But any may be used in Affirmative sentences when it has an emphatic meaning, such as: ‘No matter which or who or whom’ e.g.

1. Give me a book. Any book will do (=it does not matter which book you give me).
2. That is easy! Anybody can do that! (=it does not matter whom you ask; he will be able to do it).
b. In Interrogative sentences:
(a) Any is used: as; –
Have you brought any mangoes?
(b) Some may be used, when the interrogative sentences are quivalent to polite requests or when they happen to be questions to which the answer ‘yes’ is expected.

1. Will you please give me some mangoes?
Will you have some more coffee?
Would you mind giving me some paper?
2. Aren’t there some pens in that drawer?
Polite
requests.
Answer
‘yes’ is
expected
When the answer is
c. In Conditional * sentences:
There are some pens in that drawer, aren’t there?
Note: Are there any
pens in that drawer?
unknown to the speaker.

If I had any money, I should go there.
If there are any apples in the market, please buy some.

(a) I doubt whether he will have any chance.
(b) He wondered whether any of his classmates would be there.
(c) He was not certain whether any good would come of detaining students.
(d) In sentences expressing doubt, wonder and uncertainty.
(e) The rules given above for some and any apply to their compounds, such as: someone, anyone; somebody, anybody; something, anything; somewhere; anywhere.

Affirmative:

1. There is somebody knocking on (or at) the door. Interrogative:
See Appendix D
1. Is there anybody in the next room? 2. Did you go anywhere last week?

Negative:

1. There is not anybody there.
2. I did not go anywhere yesterday.
N.B. The use of, ‘no any’ is a common mistake. It is wrong to say, ‘I have no any money. It should be either ‘I have not any money’. or ‘I have no money’.

Use of few, a few, the few

Few (opposed to many) is negative in sense and means (not many).
eg. (a) His wants are few. (b) He is a man of few words. We had few (=almost no) opportunities.
2. A few (opposed to none) is affirmative and means some at least, (i.e. a small number).
e.g. (a) A few of the boys in the class got the answer for the problem.
(b) We are lucky, he spoke a few words.
3. The few means ‘not many’ but all (that) there are’. e.g. (1) He read the few books he had (=He had not many books, but he read all of them).

Use of : little; a little; the little.

1. Little is negative in sense and means not much. e.g. You will have little trouble in finding out my house.
2. A little is affirmative and means ‘some’ though not much.
e.g. (a) He knows a little of everything.
A conditional sentence consists of two parts:
(b) the condition (if clause) and
(c) the result of its fulfilment (Principal clause)

Degrees Of Comparison

(b) A little learning is a dangerous thing.

3. The little means ‘not much’ but all (that) there is.
.e.g. The little money he had was stolen.
Note: Little is also used as an ordinary adjective mean-
ing ‘small’ (=not great or big.)
e.g. (a) Go a little way (short distance).
(b) Work a little while (short time).
(c) A little child (small size or young).
(d) The little Subbaraos (Subbarao’s children)
Note: a) Little is used as an adverb meaning ‘to a small
extent only’ (or ‘not at all’)
e.g. (a) He is little known in our town.
(b) His house is little better than a hotel.

Comparison of Adjectives

Rama, Gopal, Krishna అను ముగ్గురు పిల్లలలో వారికి పొడుగులో గల తేడాలను కనిపెట్టునపుడు రాముని కంటే గోపాలుడును, గోపాలునికంటె కృష్ణుడును పొడుగుగా నున్నట్లు తెలియవచ్చినది. కనుక ముగ్గురిలోను ఎవరు మిక్కిలి పొడుగు? కృష్ణుడు మిక్కిలి పొడుగు.

ఇతరులతో పోల్చనంతవరకు రాముడు కూడ పొడుగు అని మాత్రము చెప్పవచ్చును. కనుక ‘Rama is tall’ అందుము. Gopal రామునికంటె పొడుగు కనుక ‘Gopal is taller than Rama’ అందుము. కృష్ణుడు గోపాలుని కంటె పొడుగు, కావున, ‘Krishna is taller than Gopal అందుము. కాని ముగ్గురిలోను లేక అందరిలోను కృష్ణుడు మిక్కిలి పొడుగు కావున ‘Krishna is
the tallest of the three’ లేక ‘Krishna is the tallest of all’ అందుము.

పైన చెప్పిన tall, taller, tallest అను తేడాలను తెలియజేయు మూడు రూపములు Degrees of Comparision అని పిలువబడును.

1. The Positive Degree :- ఉ: tall, small, Gopal is tall.
His house is small.
2. The Comparative Degree: a Boys Xe
తేడాను చెప్పునపుడు మాత్రమే ఉపయోగింపబడును. ఉ: Taller, smaller. Gopal is taller than Rama.
3. The Superlative Degree: a dodos 50
వస్తువులను పోల్చునపుడు ఉపయోగింపబడును. ఉ: tallest, smallest. Krishna is the tallest of all the boys.
Formation of the Comparative and the Superlative forms

1. ఒకటే syllable గల Adjectives విషయములో:
(a) Positive degree 338 er 33 Comparative degree యును, est చేర్చుటచే Superlative degree యును, ఏర్పడును. : hard, harder, hardest.
(b) Positive కి చివర e ఉన్నయెడల. Comparative ఏర్పడుటకు 7 ను, Superlative ఏర్పడుటకు st యును చేర్చబడును. ఉ: wise, wiser,
wisest.
(c) Positive కి చివరనున్న y వెనుక
(a) హల్లులున్న యెడల ఆ y ని ” క్రింద మార్చి er, est చేర్చవలెను. & dry, driet, driest.
(b) హల్లులు లేనియెడల ‘y’ ” క్రింద మారదు. ఉః gay, gayer, gayest.
(d) Positive కి చివర ఒకటే హల్లుండి ఆ హల్లుకి వెనుక ఒకటే అచ్చున్న యెడల, ఆ చివర హల్లు ద్విత్వమగును. ఉ: red, redder, reddest; thin, thinner, thinnest.
కాని Positive కి చివర రెండు హల్లులున్నయెడల గాని, చివరి హల్లునకు వెనుక రెండచ్చులుండినగాని ఆహల్లులు ద్విత్వము కానేరవు. ఉ: thick, thicker, thickest; weak, weaker, weakest.
2. రెండు syllables గల కొన్ని adjectives కును మూడు syllables Xo adjectives, positive & more and most o Trwa Jaj3 Comparative, Superlative degree e 5. & beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.
3. కొన్ని adjectives irregular గా compare చేయబడును. ఉ:

PositiveComparativeSuperlative
Good (adj.)betterbest
Well (adv.)betterbest
Bad, illworseworst
Littleless, lesser,least
Muchmoremost
Manymoremost
OldOlder, elder,oldest, eldest
Latelater, latterlatest, last
Far.furtherfarthest
Foreformermost
Ininnerforemost, first
Upupperinmost, innermost
Outouter, utterupmost, uppermost outmost,utmost outermost, utter most
Fewfewerfewest
Nearnearernearest, next

 

1. Comparison 30

Comparative degree

తరువాత than అను మాటయును. Superlative degree తర్వాత of అను మాటయును రావలెను. ఉదా: Rama is taller than Krishna. Gopal is the tallest of all the boys.
Superlative Adjective op the articles 0333. the tallest tree.
Adjective కి ముందు the ఉంచినపుడు ఆ phrase ఒక బహువచన నామవాచకమునకు సమమగును. ఉ the rich అనగాthe rich people; the poor on the poor people.

2. Comparative degree

Comparison than అను మాటయు, selection సూచించునపుడు of అను మాటయు రావలయును. ఉదాః

(1) Rama is stronger than Gopal.
(2) This pen is the better of the two (Selection) N. B. Selection ro
కి ముందు the తప్పక రావలెను.

Comparative Adjective

3. A few English Comparative Adjectives (latter, elder, former, hinder, inner, outer, upper etc.,) do not take than after them.

Wrong – He is elder than I..
Correct He is older than I.

These are used as ordinary adjectives as :- elder brother; inner compartment, latter part, hinder legs; upper storey.

4. Latin Comparatives (superior, inferior, senior, junior pior, anterior, posterior, ulterior take to after them; as: This rice is far superior to that. He is junior to me.

5. Much and Little 3 (quantity) 30. Many and few Song (number) 30. much money, but many rupees, little bread, but few loaves.

6. (a) Older and oldest are used both of persons and things; as: Rama is older than Gopal (of greater age). This is the oldest tree in the forest (of the greatest age).
(b) Elder and eldest are used of persons only, and chiefly with reference to the members of the same family; as – Krishna is my elder brother (born prior). He is my eldest son (first born).7. (a) Later and latest refer to time and are opposed to earlier and earliest; as:- This is a later Publication. Tell me the latest news. He came later than I.
(b) Latter and last refer to order or position; as: The latter part of his life was happy. He is the last boy in the class. (c) Latter is opposed to former. Latter means the second mentioned of two things; former means the first mentioned of two things; as Rama and Gopal are brothers; the latter (=gopal) is more intelligent than the fomer (=Rama).

1. Fill up the blanks with than or of :-

1. Rama is taller….. Gopal. 2. Seetha is younger….. Savitri. 3. Hari is the best…… all the boys in the class. 4. Gold is heavier….. Iron. 5. Iron is the most useful….. all the metals. 6. Krishna runs faster….. I. 7. He loves me better….. you. 8. He is a better boy….. Kesava. 9. I am worse….. Rama in History. 10. London is the largest ….. all the towns in the world. 11. Iron is the cheapest….. all the metals. 12. My pencil is larger….. yours. 13. Kings are not the happiest ….. men. 14. Your hat is smaller….. mine. 15. The rose is the loveliest….. all the flowers. 16. Gopal is the cleverer….. the two. 17. Krishna is the wiser….. the two. 18. This boy is the more intelligent….. the two.
Ans: 2. than 3. of 7. than 10. of 13. of 16. of 18. of 2. Correct the following:-

1. He is short than you. 2. He is the cleverest than all the boys. 3. This book is easiest to that. 4. Gopal is young than all. 5. My son is clever than yours. 6. Rama is an active boy than Sunder. 7. John is more taller than James. 8. To-day is very cold than Yesterday. 9. My pay is little than yours. 10. John is the baddest boy in the class. 11. This man is senior than that. 12. This paper is inferior than that. 13. Rama is junior than Gopal. 14. His strength is superior than mine. 15. Rama is elder than Krishna. 16. He is my elder brother. 17. Thissummer hotter than the latest. 18. The later of the two reasons is sound. 19. Tell me the last news.
Ans: 1. Shorter 2. of 3. easier than 4. the youngest of 6. a more active. 7. taller than 9. less 10. the worst 11. to 12. to 13. to 14. to 15. older 16. elder 17. last 18. latter 19. latest.

Formation of Adjectives

Adjectives are formed from:
(a) Nouns – Fool, foolish; Care, careful; king, kingly; gift, gifted; fame, famous.
(b) Verbs Move, movable; talk, talkative.
(c) Adjetives Black, blackish; (=somewhat black); Sick (=unhealthy) sickly (= somewhat sick, habitually ailing) Ex. 24 A

Form Adjectives from :-

Man, tire, boy, white, fury, ease, eat, sense, gold, whole, play, silk, dirt, pardon, courag, glory, health.

Adjective – equivalents

1. Verb-adjectives (Participles): Like other adjectives
they are used in two ways:-
(a) As epithets:
(a) Living creatures.
Creatures living beneath the sun.
(b) A printed book.
A table made of wood.
(a) As predicative adjectives:
(A) Said of the subject:
(a) The people came running. They are playing.
Active Participles. Passive
Participles.
Active Participles.
(b) I became assured that my
would be cured.
foot
They were changed into blocks of wood.
(B) Said of the object :
(C) time.
(a) I found the thief running away. They heard the people ringing the bells.
(b) I saw a rat caught in a trap.
I got my leg broken.
Passive Participles..
Active Participles
Passive Participles.
In the Nominative Absolute construction :
God willing, (=if God wills) we hope to succeed this
Everything having been prepared. (=after everything had been prepated) he dropped a bomb.
This done (=when this had been done) he retired.
He having the start (=as he had – the start) the enemy was at a disadvantage.
2. A Noun in apposition:
(a)We, Andhras (b) Asoka, the Emperor of India. (c) Delhi, the capital of India.
3. A Noun in the Possessive case:
(a) Rama’s house (b) The King’s palace.
4. ANoun in the Accusative case (acccusative of description): (a) The earth is the shape of an orange (-orangeshaped). (b) The towers were exactly the same height (=of the same height). (c) What colour (=of what colour, is the rose?)
5. Epithet nouns :
(a) Nouns may be used like epithet-adjectives;A Gold ring (a ring made of gold); gipsy coat; the river Ganges; the village watchman (=a watchman for the village); cannon balls (=ballls for cannon); the sick room (=room for the sick).
(b) A noun forming part of a compound noun
(a) Fruit – trees; market – place; honey – bee.
(b) Playmates; timepiece; milkmaid.
(c) A verb noun (=gerund forming part of a compound noun: Dancing – lesson (= a lesson in dacing) walking – stick; drawing-room.
(d) A compound noun: Drawing room furniture.
6. Proper noun:
Nellore rice; Kashmere shawls, Sunday hats.
7. (A) A phrase:
Walking on the road, I saw a snake.
(B) A lump of lead (-leaden lump) (b) Ten years of age (=Ten years old). (c) The day after to-morrow. (d) A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
8. An Adverb:
(a) The then king.
(b) The off side.
(c) The houses there.
(d) The trees yonder.
(e) The classes below.
(f) The above remarks.
(g) Life abroad.
(h) The far-off isles.
(i) In after years.
9. A clause (in complex sentence) :
This is the house that my father built.
10. Gerundial infinitive:
(a) Give me water to drink.
(b) This house is to let.
11. A quotation: Always follow the ‘live and let live’ policy.