Alekhya

Essay

An essay may be defined as an exercise in written composition expressing one’s feelings and thoughts on a given subject in a familiar informal and pleasing way. Addison’s essays are good models for students. What is said of the paragraph is substantially true of the essay which is after all a glorified kind of expansion.

1. Characteristics

N.B. What is said of the paragraph is substantially true of the essay which is after all a glorified kind of expansion.
1. Unity: (a) Of subject (One theme), (b) Of Treatment (i,e. as many paragraphs as there are ideas, besides the intro- duction and the conclusion.
2. Coherence: The first paragraph must give the purport of the whole essay; the body of the essay is to develop the theme by an ordered arrangement of the various ideas in as many paragraphs, so as to secure unity. The last paragraph is to be a sort of summing up the several ideas dealt with in the course of the essay.
3. Length: About 50 lines.
4. Style: Clear, simple, literary and dignified.
5. Language: Simple, direct, free and natural. The secret of clear writing is clear thinking. Write as you talk to a friend on the theme of the essay.
6. The personal view point: Give your opinions, otherwise the essay would be colorless: it is this feature that raises the essay to the level of art and literature.
7. Balance: The space devoted to the development of any idea should be proportionate to the importance of that idea in relation to the other ideas in the essay.
8. A good Beginning: It should arrest the reader’s attention and tell him what to expect.
9. A good Conclusion: It is to be effective and satisfying.

Note: A good essayist is more known by what he omits than what he selects.

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Good Beginnings

1. Making the first paragraph strike the key-note of the essay.
2. Laying down a Preposition: (e.g. “A man’s first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart; his next is to escape the censures of the world”). (Vide ‘Sir Roger at the Assizes by Addison).
3. A Quotation: An essay on ‘Reading Books’ may begin with a quotation from Carlyle.” All Books are properly the record of the history of past men”

Best Endings

1. Echoing from another stand- point or suggesting in another light the core of the first paragraph.
2. Making the last paragraph richly suggestive of the whole essay; (e.g. “This therefore is the praise of Shakespeare that his drama is the mirror of life, etc.,” Johnson).
3. The use of a quotation: (e.g. Addison ends his essay “Pleasures of Imagination,” with a quotation from Bacon: “Entertain studies that fill the mind with splendid and illustrious objects as histories, fables and contemplations of nature.”)
4. A postscript (an after thought) as in the case of the Essay on “Sleep” by Leigh Hunt:
Sleep is most graceful in an infant; soundest, in one who has been tired in the open air; completest, to the seaman after a hard voyage; most welcome, to the mind haunted with an idea; most touching to look at, in the parent that has wept; lightest in the playful child; proudest, in the bride adored.

B. Classification Of Essays

1. Descriptive; 2. Narrative; (a) Incidents or Accidents; (b) Historical; (c) Biographical; 3.Reflective; 4. Imaginative. III. HOW TO SET ABOUT AN ESSAY
1. Classification.
2. Scope (What exactly the subject is and what it is not). 3. Collection of Material: (Note down points, facts, ideas and illustrations, as and when they strike you without troubling yourself at this stage about their order or suitability).
4. Selection; (From what you have jotted down, select the points most suitable for your essay and cross out those which are either irrelevant or mere repetitions).
5. Making an Outline: If you go through the material collected, having definitely the subject in your mind, you should be able to write down the Main heads (say 3 to 6) under which the material can be grouped. This will ensure the unity of the essay (i,e. treatment).
6. Fill in the outline with details marked (a), (b), (c) etc. from the material collected under the various Main heads.
7. Think out a suitably effective beginning as well as a refreshingly suggestive conclusion even before you begin the essay; you will them have planned your essay. This will ensure (a) Orderliness and system (b) balance, and (c) security against repetition and digression.
8. Put in flesh and blood in the skeleton of your essay. Note: Avoid the pronouns ‘T’ and ‘You.’

A. HISTORICAL EVENT

The Battle of Plassey
Outline: (a) Introduction, (b) Causes, (c) Circumstances leading to the battle (a) Nawab evading the terms of the treaty (b) Conspriracy of the nobles (c) Clive joining the plot. (d) Battle, (a) Clive marching with an army towards Plassey, (b). Jaffar’s faithlessness to his master, (c) The Nawab’s defeat. (e) Conclusion.

The battle of Plassey though an insignificant, event in itself, formed the turning point in the history of India and led to the foundation of the British Empire.

There were two causes for the battle of Plassey. On the death of his grandfather, Ali Vardhikhan, young and impetu- ous Surajud-Doulah became the Nawab of Bengal in 1756. Soon aferwards, he made enemies of the English on the one hand and alienated the nobility of his state by his cruel ways on the other.

By his unprovoked attack on Calcutta, he invited, so to speak, the armies of the English to march against him under the command of Robert Clive. After his defeat, he was forced to grant cretain concessions to the English. But the Nawab began intriguing with the French, with a view to evading the terms of the treaty.

Now the thoroughly dissatisfied nobles plotted to de- pose the Nawab and put Mir Jaffar, one of his generals, on the gadi. Naturally, Jaffar, headed the conspiracy and got Clive to join the plot.

Aminchand, a banker, threatened to divulge the plot to the Nawab when Clive pacified him by using a forged document for the payment of twenty lakhs of rupees as hush money. Now the Nawab was taken to task by Clive for evading the terms of the the treaty and intriguing with the French.

Receiving no reply, Clive marched with a well-trained army and attacked the Forces of the Nawab at Plassey, a village ninety miles from Calcutta. The Nawab’s army under the com- mand of a trusted and experienced general, Mir Mardan in- flicted heavy casualties on the English.

But on his death, con- fusion spread among the numerous but disorganised troops of the Moghul army, and the panic-stricken Surajud-Doulah fled.

Fortune once again smiled on Clive. Mir Jaffar who was to have come to the Nawab’s help, stood aloof with a huge army under his command. Thus he was responsible for the utter defeat of the Nawab.

The victory was full of momentous consequences. This made the English the virtual rulers of Bengal. Eventually they conquered the whole of India in the course of a century. But there is a silver line in the cloud.

The Balkanised India has sice become unified and integrated under British rule, to emerge as the second biggest successful Democracy in the world.

2. Any Place Of Interest You Have Visited The Taj Mahal

Skeleton: (a) Introduction (b) The greatest tomb, (c) Description: (a) Magnitude (men, material, money and time), (b) Avenues, (c) Decoration (mosaic, pattern), (d) Indo-Persian style of architecture, (e) The Mecca of the world tourists, (d) Glory: (a) in the light of the setting sun, (b) in full moonlight (e) Conclusion.

There are examples though rare of human love tran- scending earthly limitations. They let us into the divinity of what is worldly; one such is the Taj.

It is regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It was built by the great Moghul Emperor, Shah Jahan over the grave of him beloved wife, Mumtaz. It is the finest and costliest tomb ever built on earth. The Taj is as sublime as the emperor’s love for his consort.

It is said, about 20,000 men were employed in the con- struction; it was begun in 1632 and took nearly twenty two years to complete the edifice. It cost nearly thirty lakhs of rupees in those days.

It has been built of white marble and is indeed a marvellous feat of structural engineering. The ap- proaches to the building are majectic avenues, smooth green lawns with water beds bordered on either side by flower plants of rare and different varieties.

All round, there are fountains playing in shady spots. At the centre is the mausoleum which contains the remains of the emperor, Shah Jahan and Mumtaz. The decorations on the marble walls are of the rich mosaic pattern. The Indo-Persian style of architercture of Akbar’s days was adopted in the construction of the monument.

Its main structure is characterised by elegance and grandeur rather than strength and massiveness. It is a tribute to the exquisite and unrivalled workmanship and genius of ancient Indian builders.

The artistic splendour of the whole scene testifies to the supernatural love and affection of the emperor for his beloved. The four entrances to the Taj together, have the whole Khoran inscribed on them. Verily, it is the Mecca of the world tourists and a harmonious blend of Hindu and Moslem cul- tures.

As we approach it, we are overpowered by its vastness and solemnity. The mighty and majestic dome on the main structure and the minarets, are bathed by the golden rays of the setting sun.

Gleaming in the evening sun, the silent and placid waters of the Jumna gliding past the Tomb, seem to add a dimension to its grandeur. The transparent splendour of the Taj seen in a fullmoon night is a sight for gods.

The soft and pleasant moonlight playing on the milk white marble amidst the all pervading solemn silence, symbolises the luxury of magnificence invested on it; and this reveals the resplendent glory to the Moghul court.

The Taj remains an unforgettable feast for life for the visitor’s eye, making him “wonder if earth has anything to show more fair,” and we cannot help recollecting in tranquility, Wordsworth’s experience embodied in his immortal lines: “I gazed, and gazed, but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought.” In short the Taj is happily described as tears crystallized, a poem in marble.

3. Hobbies

Analysis: (a) Introduction (b) Signification (different kinds), (c) Distinguished from Profession. (d) Distinguished from Recreation. (e) Distinguished from Entertainment or Amusement. (f) The creative element (a passion for inven- tion.) (g) Rewarding means of self-expression (h) Conclusion.

It is not everbody that has a hobby. It is a thing pursued for its own sake in all stages of life during one’s leisure. It is a rewarding means of self expression and helps make life fuller and richer.

Hobby is something that one does or a subject that one studies as an occupation for one’s leisure; hence it is a favourite engagement. There are different kinds of hobbies: painting, fishing, photography, carpentry, gardening and collection of stamps, rare flowers, old-books and curios.

Some are costly such as hunting and yachting, while some are within the reach of all. One can engage oneself in a hobby all through lite and thereby keep young in spirits and halthy even in old age.

What is hobby for one may be profession for another. A student having photography for his hobby cannot be happy unless he goes on an excursion and takes photographs of rare pieces of scenery. The idea of making money does not figure at all in the picture.

But the studio proprietor practices photography as a profession in as much as he makes living by it. True, hobbies like collecting stamps, making fancy articles, rabbit rearing, bee-keeping may turn out to be paying propositions, but that is accidental.

A hobby is to be distinguished from a recreation though both refresh mind and body. Among recreations mention may be made of participation in games and sports, swimming and boating.

But there is a radical difference in the intellectual approach: men have to seek after leisure to indulge in a recreation for relief from fatigue, while leisure induces them to the pursuit of a hobby, which makes them feel refreshed and better fir for work; this is because they feel a sense of gratification of an inner urge.

If recreation replenishes depleted energy, hobby renews life and vigor and that makes all the difference relief is the aim of a recreation, while it is a accidental in the pursuit of a hobby.

An entertainment (or amusement) can never be called a hobby, though both make one cheerful and happy by keeping the mind engaged in a pleasant way. Entertainments include going to a theatre, cinema, circus and concerts.

But there is a fundamental difference in the emotional approach. For pleasure, an amusement is indulged in, while out of pleasure, a hobby is pursued, and that makes all the difference. A hobby therefore gives a high sense of gratification that recreation or entertainment can ill afford.

Some of the discoveries and inventions are traceable to hobbies. Hobby in whose pursuit one is engrossed, forms the fulfilment of a passion for inventing things which are surely more beneficial to the world the pursuits which seem to profit man because of their direct utility.

A hobby thus affords him the reward of self-expression. In the early stages of student’s life, nothing reveals his personality so much as his hobby. This furnishes the clue in a way to the parent and the teacher for determining his career wherein his natural bent of mind finds complete expression.

Thus it is that a hobby innocent in character, pursued out of pleasure, induced by leisure and indulged in because of an inner urge for self-expression- affords intellectual and emotional gratification, revitalization of the faculties of body and mind-and contributes to the full development of one’s personality, which is the summon bonus (the be-all and end-all) of liberal education, the goal of a university.

4. Exhibitions

Outline: (a) Introduction (b) Idea of an exhibition (a) Three dimensional historical representation of evolution. (b) Museum (c) Different kinds (c) History (a) Beginning, Growth (b) Organization (d) Spirit :- (a) University (b) Re- search laboratory (e) Uses — (a) Means of advertising goods (b) Scope for starting and improving national industries. (c) Special advantages to small manufacturers and cottage industries. (f) Necessity for them (Mobile exhibitions). (g) Conclusion.

An Exhibition adds to the improvement and prosperity of nations. It is at once a Museum, a University and a Research laboratory. It is, so to speak, a three dimensional historical record of the progressive stages of achievement in a particular field.

For instance, Railway Exhibition includes the various models (pro- duced in several countries) of engines and carriages which illustrate their evolution from the time of James Watt to the present day. So an exhibition is a panorama of the continuity of progress made in the Railway.

It is in this sense that the exhi- bition is a Museum. An exhibition is an organised public show of the achievements, in Art-Science, Agriculture, Horticulture or Industry. The scope of the Industrial exhibition is wider and of greater utility and therefore commoner than other exhibi- tions.

The age of industrial exhibition began in England in 1851. Other great exhibitions followed, such as the Paris Inter- national exhibition in 1855, the Pan American Exhibition in New York in 1901.

There is a regular committee for selecting the site, getting stalls erected for the exhibits, inviting various exhibitors. Admission is by tickets. There is also a committee of Judges to award prizes and certificates of merit for the exhibits. A well organised International Exhibition, forms a milestone in the history of human advancement and contributes to world peace and happiness.

Most people attend an exhibition for diversion because novelty and variety characterize it. They wish to enjoy them- selves spending a few hours seeing the various exhibits.

But this brings their knowledge up to date in that subject, without their being conscious of it. The idea of utility if totally absent. Hence an exhibition may be justly called a University imparting Liberal education.

A visitor with an inventive and mechanical turn of mind has the best opportunity of studying the latest models and improving upon them. Thus in a certain sense an exhibition proves a laboratory and helps raise the standard of production in general.

An exhibition is the best means of advertising the goods of the participating countries or manufacturers. At each stall an expert is posted to explain the special advantages which a particular model has over others.

Nor is this all, sometimes the process of preparing a product, or the principle of working a machine is demonstrated, and specimens are freely distributed along with relative illustrated pamhlets. Prizes awarded to the best exhibits serve as an impetus to manufacturers to further improve their workmanship.

Thus the industrialist and the consumers are benefited alike. Especially countries backward in cretain industries prosper by adoping the improvements made by other nations in those industries. A country may not have an industry though rich in the concerned raw materials.

Such a country may with advantage participate particularly in Industrial exhibitions, start new industries, improve and ex- pand those that are already there. The development of the industrial potential of a country adds to its wealth and contrib- utes to the happiness of the people by raising the standard of life.

Small manufacturers and cottage industries are specially benefited by exhibitions, for they do not have the means to advertise their goods, so that most people may not know what different kinds of articles are produced and where thay are available.

The result is: industries not having a market for their goods, languish and die as a matter of course. Every nation should endeavour to popularise and par- ticipate in exhibitions, if it is to hold its own against the daily growing competition among the nations of the world.

Hence the Exhibition Trains and Exhibition Ships specially chartered for the purpose. The latest knowledge and improvements are thereby carried to the doors of the people.

Exhibitions, encyclopaedic in range, international in out look and culture, and global in dimension bring together in one place the integrated intellectual achievements of the differ- ent nations of an age.

They thus help increase the prosperity and happiness of mankind, create and improve good under- standing between the various people and pave the way for es- tablishing world peace.

5. Biography Of A Great Man

Life of Potti Sreeramulu Out line; (a) Introduction (b) Early life (birth, parentage, education) including his stay at Sabarmati Ashram (c) Village uplift, propagation of the gospel of the Charka (d) Harijan uplift (e) Pracharak of G.M.F. (f) Trials for Andhra province. (g) Fast to death. (h) Conclusion.

By self-immolation through fasting for fifty eight days, unmindful of the outcome Potti Sreeramulu dedicated his life to the formation of the Andhra Province. One wonders if earth has any sacrifice half so sublime as his to show.

The world ha so far, produced only two others who may be ranked next to him. One is Mekswine, an Irishman, who fasted to death for the freedom of his country, and the other is Janthendradas of the Pubjab who died fasting in jail under British rule.

Potti Sreeramulu was born on 16-1-1901 in Madras in a Banya family. While serving in the G.I.P. Railway, he lost his wife. So he resigned his job in 1927 and joined Gandhi’s Sabarmati Ashram to dedicate his life to the service of the country.

Astonished at his exemplary life, Gandhi remarked that if he had ten such disciples, he would win Swaraj for India in a year. Next for four years, he worked for village uplift and for one’ year he preached the gospel of the Charka with missionary zeal, going from door to door in the Nellore district.

Now he took to Harijan uplift and surpassed Gandhi in his service. By fasting on four occasions, he made Harijan temple-entry an accomplished fact and came to be called “Second Gandhi”.

Even after Independence, the laws realsting to Harijan temple-entry and untouchability remained a dead letter. He therefore fasted for their enforcement before the chief minis- ter’s office with the result he was put in jail for one month.

On coming out, he fasted for 28days at Wardha for self-purifica- tion. Moved by this, President Rajendraprasad got a directive issued to the States to observe the Harijan day.

He found that corruption infected the Congress at all levels. With a view to keeping away from politics, he worked as a Pracharak for collecting Gandhi Memorial Fund, on a monthly salary of Rs. 50/- though he was appointed on Rs. 150/- He found no response in the matter of contributions to the fund in Andhra and diagnosed the cause to be frustration following their failure to get a province for themselves. The main hurdle was the settlement of the question of Madras.

He naturally appealed to Prakasam and Ranga to fast for the formation of the Andhra Province to no purpose. So he issued a statement that he would fast to death for the forma- tion of the Andhra State, the question of Madras being settled amicably to all the minorities concerned.

The historic fast unto death began on 19-10-1952 at the residence of Maharshi Sambamurty. At the commencement he took an assurance from the Maharshi and the doctors attending upon him, that no food should be given to him by mouth or otherwise even in his unconscious state.

Even Sambamurty who had approved of his fast told him that he was entering the state from which recovery was an impossibility, meaning that he should give up the fast, when Sreeramulu signified hi surprise and smiled

Nehru’s telegram asking him to give up the fast was deservedly commented upon by Sambamurty in his remark: “Nehru wants to make us fools”.

His soul departed on the 58th day of the fast. The Centre’s decision to form the Andhra State excluding the disputed areas was received while the funeral procession was on the way.

Next morning the selfless leader, Tenneti Viswantham rightly resigned his Assembly membership. If the other Andhra Assembly members had followed in his footsteps and started agitation throughout the Andhra area, the modest dream of Sreeramulu would have been realised and his sacrifice purposeful.

Sad to say, the present truncated state of Andhra was carved without Madras being declared at least a Chief Com- missioner’s province as envisaged in the Centrally sponsored Dhar Committee report.

Potti Sreeramulu went to jail five times, fasted on five occasions and proved a truer follower of Gandhian cult than Gandhi himself in respect of the propagation of the gospel of the Charka, his service for the uplift of the Harijans and rural India, self-denial as a pracharak; finally he proved a better martyr than Christ or Gandhi, in that he dedicated his life for a noble cause by self-immolation.

If it was given to Gandhi to demonstrate the potentiali- ties of fasting, it fell to Amarajeevi Sreeramulu to purge it of its impurities and imperfections such as threat, demand, bargain and undignified compromise.

Thus the unassuming Karmayogi has given to the world the most sublime concept of martyrdom (Prayopavesam) by fasting unto death for a great cause with a smile on the lips and with no thought for the result, and he has deservedly been canonised a saint.

6. Sweet Are The Uses Of Adversity

Outline: 1) Introduction, (a) What Adversity means and implies, (b) Uses: a) Stoicism, (b)Optimisn, (c) True values of life (iv) Contrast between prospersity and adversity: a)Virtues of (temperance X fortitude); b) Reveals (vice X virtue) (c) Involves worries and dangers Xgives hope and consolation (d) Brings friends X tries friends, (e) A worldly belssing X revela- tion of God’s favour, f) Forgetful of God X mindful of God (g) Moral and spritual effect of adversity:- a) Makes martyrs, b) Renders miracles possible by elevating man to godhead.

The statement ‘Sweet are the uses of adversity’ is paradoxicl. One naturally avoids adversity if possible. Pandavas were no exception to this, and their life in exile bears ample testimony to it. But it shall presently be shown that the statement is an unqualified truth.

Adversity is a condition of suffering or a state of destitution often implying previous prosperity. The good things that belong to prosperity such as: wealth, comfort, power and position are to be wished; but the good things that belong to adversity are to be admired.

The uses of adversity are sweet and multifarious. It brings out the best in man. First, it makes one a stoic, develop- ing the virtues of patience, endurance, discipline, sacrifice and reconciliation to one’s lot in life. It never disheartens a man; on the other hand it moulds and strengthens one’s character.

Secondly, those who have been trained in the school of adversity are by far superior to those brought up in the lap luxury. They make the best of thing of as they come, look only on their bright side and become real optimists. To the senior Duke in the forest of Arden, the biting winds serve but to make him thus smile in the face of adversity:

“This is no flattery: these are consellors, That feeling persuade me what I am, Sweet are the uses of adversity.” The Duke could thus translate the stubbornness of for- tune into so quiet and so sweet a style.

Thirdly, only one who has experienced adversity has the affectionate understanding and sharing of the troubles of others. He thereby develops the virtues of sympathy and compassion and comes to have a sense of the true values of life, which go to make it complete and perfect.

The Duke reached a state wherin he could harmonise the finite in him with the infinite, when pain itself becomes à valauable asset and sorrows become transmuted into joys.

It often happens that a man in prosperity wastes his wealth in riotous living. Hence the virtue of prosperity is temperance, while the virtue of adversity is fortitude which is the more heroical of the two. Virtue in adversity is like precious spices most fragrant when they come to be crushed or in- censed.

Prosperity best brings to light vice, and adversity does best reveal impending evil, and disgust at being deprived, which poison the pleasures of prosperity. Adversity is not without radiant hopes of good, and the consolation of suffering for an ideal or conviction- which not only relieve the sadness of the unfortunate, but make them emerge better through purifi- cation.

If prosperity brings friends, adveristy tries them as nothing else does; and this is no where better exemplified than in the case of Timon of Athens who had been frequently visited by his friends in his affluence, but was deserted by them in his difficulties.

If prosperity is a worldly blessing, adversity is a greater benediction that carries with it the clearer revelation God’s favour. So adversity is an instrument in the hands of God for the moral and spiritual elevation of man.

A perfect and upright man, Job, the gretest of all the menof the cast, in the course of a single day, had his seven children killed in house collapse, and all his of the possessions either stolen or burnt up. Upon that he worshipped and said:

“Blessed be the name of God”.

Thus he stood God’s test of adversity by his unswerving retitude and unwavering confidence in God. As a result, he won God’s favour and was amply rewarded in the long run: he got back not only his children, but twice the possessions he had lost-a veritable miracle.

The coming back to life of the son of Bhadrachala Ramadas is another example in point in prosperity, one absorbed in material concerns and world by enjoyment is apt to forget God and lead a life of vice.

On the other hand adversity keeps him ever mindful of the Lord and enables him to lead a god-fearing and righteous life, against the most trying circumstances. This is what is meant by Job, when the he said to his comforters:

“Happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise not thou, the chastening of the Almighty” “Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass? Or loweth the ox over his fodder” ?

The same is the spirit undrelying Kunthi’s last request to Lord Krishna, for the visitation of affliction.

Sometimes adveristy makes martyrs. Martin Luther set himself against the potentates of Europe and had the gratification that he was sacrificing his life for a great and noble cause In the tragic hero, King Lear we behold a transition from maledictions to martyrdom.

In the immortal King Harischandra, we are instructed how unshakable faith in truthfulness, triumphing over the worst privations and afflictions, approaches to the nature of gods_ a miracle wrought by adver- sity, as the sovereign good and consummation of human nature. Thus it is that sweet are the uses of adversity which : “Finds tongues in trees, books, in the running brooks, Sermons in stones and good in everything.’

7. Libraries

To day no one needs say in despair, “Oh Friend! I know not which way I must turn for knowledge.” Libraries embody the accumulated wisdom of all peoples of all ages. Thus they become nurseries of moral and intellectual training especially to talented persons who cannot afford University Education.

There was a time when book-reading was the monopoly of the rich, and the luxury of the leisure classes. Before printing came into vogue, especially in the Medieval times the position of libraries was confined to religious orders or convents.

Books were witten by hand, mostly by the clergy, hence they were a rare and costly commodity. With the invention of printing press in the 15th century the institution of Libraries became possible for the first time. In the early stages, only kings and very rich people could own libraries. A library has come to mean a roon or building containing a collection of books or the books themselves.

There are different kinds of libraries: a circulation library is one that lends to subscibers books which may be studied at home and returned. From a lending library books may be taken out with or without payment. A free library is one that may be used by the public without payment.

Public libraries owed their existence to private charity either in the shape of books or money. Later on they were maintained by membership, subscription, supplemented by private endow- ments or donations. Now a public librarry is a non-profit one,

maintained in whole or in part by local taxation, refundable deposits being insisted upon from the members for the safety of books. Under a democracy every individual must realise his responsibilities as a citizen and exercise his rights.

Above all, the sacredness of the vote should be understood. Otherwise, elections and democracy become a mockery. For this end illit- eracy and ignorance must be wiped out on a nation wide scale, and this can be achieved by the opening of public libraries atall levels-which is therefore the condition precedent for the suc- cessful functioning of Demoracy.

Public library is one of the necessaries of life. Once Adult Education is taken up, thirst for knowledge can only be satis- fied by a net-work of public libraries. Libraries create a genuine interest in literature. Secondly, a good many do not have the means to buy books.

Though not badly of, some may not be able to buy all the books that interest or benefit them. Again it is not possible to own costly and reference books like the Encyclopaedia Britannica or Webster’s International Diction- ary which can be had generally only in public libraries.

More often than not, to a library is attached a reading room which is the best plac for quiet study. It develops the reading habit and fellow-ship among the visitors, differing in social rank, culture and age.

The library is the meeting place for the student, scholar, historian and scientist and thus it proves at once to be a school, a university and a research institute.

A library must include a section meant for children, the hope of the present and leaders of the future generation. Their association with the library in their impressionable period de- velops the reading habit and a sense of civic responsibility.

In the present set-up of the Panchayat Raj, public librar- ies have been opened at all levels- the Village Panchayat, the Zilla Parishad and the State.

Mobile libraries are provided with the help of vans for the good of people living in hamlets. The result is adult education becomes a realised fact. The need for libraries in the rural areas cannot be over emphasized.

At pre- sent 60% of the primary school students leave schools before reaching the standard of permanent literacy, with the result they lapse into illiteracy, if there were not a library in each village. Libraries are a measure of the cultural standard of nation.

As in most countries, libraries are to be attached to educational institutions. The village school is the focal point of primary education. Hence it should have a library attached to it.

Notable examples of National libraries are the British Mu- seum Library in London, the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris and Congress Library in New York.

Libraries (with the manuscripts of the clergy of the middle ages as their nuclei), once the monopoly of kings, next the luxury of the rich, have become popular after the invention of printing.

Today free libraries prove at once to be educational institutions and research laboratories. Again through a net work of free libraries opened at village level and mobile libraries, knowledge is brought to the doors of the people living in hamlets, so that they largely help make adult educa- tion a reality and contribute to the making of a nation of ideal citizens with a broad and national outlook.

8. Newspapers

The Newspaper is both a sign and a boon of civilization. It started giving only news from various places and became a force in national affairs in the 17th century and has developed into a power in shaping the destiny of nations and influencing world affairs.

The world’s first printing press invented by a German, Johannes Gutenberg in the 15 century, started the develop- ment of mass communication. The newspaper as such took its birth in Venice in the middle of the 16th century and in England, the 17th century.

In India ” The Bengal Gazette” was the first to come into being late in the 19th century after the advent of the British. The cheap news-paper for the masses developed with the installation of steam printing press early in the 19th century, soon after the coming into use of the paper- making and the linotype machines.

A newspaper is a daily or weekly which contains news- local, inland and foreign – advetisements, matters of current interest and the Editorial. As the spelling suggests the ‘NEWS’ paper gives information received from the four corners of the earth; North, East, West and South.

To get news expeditiously every newspaper will have correspondents all over the world. The news covers almost all topics of human interest so that it has an appeal to all sorts of people: young and old, high and low, lawyers, doctors, politicians, businessmen, sportsmen, students, Cine-goers, literary men, educationists and research scholars: to mention a few.

They have, for leisure hours, entertainment and recrea- tional value which consists in the news relating to sports, the screen, the theatre and the fine arts. They furnish us also with a running contemporary history which can be had nowhere else. Thus newspapers embody the continuity of many-sided progress in the country.

The more a nation is educated, the greater (is) the de- mand for newspapers; for all the educated are eager to know what is going on all the world over.

So the total circulation and the number of dailies and weeklies in a country form an index of its civilization and progress. In some of the mvanced countries there are two if not three issues a da Among the various items of the newspaper, advertising is its back-bone in as much as the income from it, all but suffices to maintain it.

This brings together the employer and the workman, the manufacturer and the market, the producer and the consumer. The Editorial is the soul of the newspaper.

It is through this the editor influences public opinion on the one hand, helps the Government to formulate sound policies on the other. He gives the correct lead to the country and shapes its destiny. This is what is meant by the proverb: “The Pen is mightier than the Sword’.

Again the newspaper acts as an effective medium for representing the grievances of the people to the Government, to get them redressed. Nor will it be less critical of the people when they make unjust demands.

There by it holds the balance even between liberty of the individual and the authority of the state and makes democracy a success. Having a share indirectly in the Government, the newspaper has come to be jocularly called the ‘fourth estate’.

Especially in an emergency or crisis, it is the press that can do signal service by helping the country to tide over it. Articles contributed by experts on various subjects such as book reviews, reader’s views and letters to the Editor- are informative, educative and illuminating.

The newspaper brings to our doors the ideas of great thinkers, the discoveries and inventions of masterminds which keep us abreast of times. What is more, they make possible the continuation of the research already made anywhere in the world.

As an example in point, it may be mentioned that the invention of the Radio by Marconi, an Italian, is the result of his reading casually (while at a way-side inn) in a magazine an article by Hertz, a German scientist.

The achievements of an age thus become consolidated and integrated through news- papers. This illustrates the truth that great inventions do not spring fully developed from the brain of one man, but on the contrary represent the researches of many men of genius generally of diferent climes and times.

There are separae magazines, each devoted to a definite purpose, such as Health, Sports, Philosophy, Science, Econom- ics, Social reform, Politics, Culture films and Medicine.

Trade and commerce, the arteries of a nation’s wealth are best fed and nourished by newspapers which give wide and effective publicity to the placs of production of various ar- ticles to facilitate purchasing on the one hand- and to the markets where those goods best sell, on the other.

Newspapers sometimes prove as evil by representing and distorting facts, aggravating communal tension and racial hatred and creating needless panic among the people and dis- affection between the government and the people.

They also demoralise people through indecent advertisements and ob- jectionable writings. Unless it be to check such unhealthy ten- dencies, newspapers should not be subjected to restrictive laws, which defeat the very purpose of the press; otherwise the freedom of the individual and democracy become a mockery.

Thus it is that newspapers, an indispensable factor in public and social life, furnish us from all parts of the world, news on a variety of topics, which helps synthesize the fruits of man’s discoveries and reasearch, and make possible inven- tions.

They enable the undeveloped and less developed coun- tries to catch up with the advanced ones. They pave the way for the formation of the World Government which establishes world peace by eliminating wars, poverty, illiteracy, hunger and disease. Hence the newspapers of a nation are at once the symbol and the expression of its progress, civilization and culture.

9. Rivers

On earth, life is made not only possible and sustainable, but rich and happy by rivers; they have tricked their way into the life and thought of man. The lessons of life we learn from rivers are so many and so varied that we may find books in running brooks.

The rivers get their water from the rains on hills (like the Godavari), snow on mountaintops (like the Ganges), underground springs (like the Jhelum) big lakes (like the Nile) and another river (like the Padma).

The place where a river takes its birth is called its source. The rivers flow into a bay, a river, a sea or a ocean. The place where a river empties (itself) is called its mouth. Before joining the sea, the river branches and forms what is called the delta.

The whole length of the river lying between the source and the mouth is called its course, which changes according to the nature of the ground through which it flows.

Man has lived on the banks of rivers, for they have served him in a thousand and one ways. They not only supply drinking water to all creatures but make life sustainable.

They provide man directly with food in the form of fish. When the river reaches the plain, it flows slowly and irrigates land and helps produce all kinds of crops which form the staple food of mankind. The rich Gangetic plain is an example in point.

The whole irrigation system is based on rivers. In flood, the river carries silt from the mountain sides and renders land alluvial by its deposits.

What is more, in its couse it is joined by tributaries which augment its waters and widen the range of its usefulness by serving it as its arteries. For instance the Godavari together with its four tributaries serves the five states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.

On the plains the river becomes navigable and forms an easy and cheap means of commerce, communication, travel and transport. The net-work of canals forming its nervous system help resolve especially the bottle necks in the transport of goods by railway and solve the problem challenging the poten- tial of present transport system.

Some river waters having hot water springs and minerals dissolved in them, have medicinal effect. Man built all his early civilization around rivers, and hence, centres of culture and places of pilgrimage lie generally on river banks. Varanasi, Allahabad, Bhadrachalam, Srisailam, and Tiruvayur may be cited as illustrations.

By constructing river projects, agricultural production and power potential can be immensely stepped up. To-day only negligible portion of river waters particularly in Andhra Pradesh is utilised, most being allowed to run to waste into the sea.

By constructing dams like the Pochampad, the colossal wastage could be stopped and thereby some millions of acres brought under cultivation. Execution of Hydro-Electric proj ects (like the one at Machkund and the other Srisailam in Andhra and Saraswathi in Karnataka) increase the power po- tential in which Andhra Pradesh is tragically deficient, with the result it remains today the most industrially backward state, though it is endowed by nature with all the necessary facilities.

Again the negative aspect of the service of dams is no less important. They avert incalculable damage caused peri- odically to life, property and crops, when they are in spate.

In flood many people die, hundreds of heads of cattle perish and serveral thousands of people are rendered homeless; commu- nications dislocated and traffic disrupted. Famine and epi- demics follow in its wake adding to the misery of the victims of flood.

The Mettur dam is among the largest multi-purpose dams in the world. It generates hydro-electric power. The reservoir, which serving as an effective check against the floods in the Kaveri, ensures regular supply of water to the vast irri- gation system in Tanjore delta.

The hydro-electric power must be fully exploted where the coal reserves are limited as in the peninsular region of India. If rivers are harnessed to capacity, they enable the coun- try to be self-suffient in respect of food and add to the nation’s wealth and help raise the standard of life and countribute to the happiness of the people.

Some rivers have significant assocations of their own, Egypt is called the gift of the Nile. The mother Ganges is sacred to the Hindus, symbolizing the civilization and spiritual heri- tage of India.

The river Jordon flows through the life and times of Jesus. The Rhine runs through European history, red with French and German blood.

The river is not merely a physical phenomenon to be turned to use. It purifies the heart and touches the soul of the person with the spiritual vision. It serves man in many ways by giving up self, prepared even for extinction; thus it teaches man to realise his soul through a series of renunciations.

In it, man feels the manifestation of the spirit of God to a pro- nounced degree and thereby achieves knowledge of the high- est order-the realisation of the infinite. Thus it is that one finds books in running brooks by acquiring knowledge, material, moral and spiritual.

A stroll by the river-side makes one recreated, refreshed and exhilarated, as it becomes alive with boats and pulsates with liveliness while passing by cities and towns.

She flows wild througth forests, roars through mountain gorges, crashes into a waterfall and finally glides over plains calmly but majestically; before she merges herself in her Lord, the Ocean, in peace and triumph, revealing the way our soul, after many trials and tribulations realises its ultimate object of perfect repose and eternal bliss in Brahma.

It embodies the spirit of selfless service (to the living in God’s creation) unparalleled in nature; a wealth of sublime beauty (rich enough for a poet like Wordsworth or Keats) to be inspired to share it with others in a poem and glorious enough for an artist like Raphael to immortalize on the canvas a mine of wisdon (vast enough for a moralist like the senior Duke to draw lessons from); and the universal spirit (divine enough for a high priest of nature like Wordsworth to sermonize).

Syntax And Other Rules

1. ఏకవచనములో నుండు ప్రతి Common noun ముందు, article తప్పక ఉపయోగించవలెను. ఉ:- ‘I saw boy’ అనకూడదు. ‘I saw a boy’ అనవలెను.
2. మనుష్యుల యొక్కయు, పట్టణముల యొక్కయు, దేశముల యొక్కయు, ఖండముల యొక్కయు పేర్లయందు article వుంచకూడదు. ఉ:- the Rama, the Bombay, the India Rama, Bombay, India అని చెప్పవలెను.
3. కర్త ఏకవచనములో ఏపురుషలో వుంటే, క్రియ కూడ ఆవచనములో ఆ పురుషలో వుండవలెను. ఉ:- ‘They is’ అనుట తప్పు. ‘They are’ అని చెప్పవలెను. lis అనుట తప్పు ‘Iam’ అని  చెప్పవలెను.
4. Simple present tense లో, third person sigular కి.S అను అక్షరము తప్పక చేర్చ వలెను. ఉ:- He go ‘The boy sit’ అనుట ‘He goes’ “The boy sits’ అని చెప్పవలెను.
5. Have అను (Auxiliary) verb తరువాత ఎప్పుడును క్రియ యొక్క Past participle రూపము తప్ప మరియే రూపమును ఉపయోగించకూడదు. ఉ:- ‘He has go’ లేక ‘He has went’ అనుట తప్పు ‘He has gone’ అని చెప్పవలెను.
6. Present participle Past participles Finite verbs **వలె వుపయోగించకూడదు.
ఉ:- going అనుట తప్పు : ‘I am going’ ‘I was going’ అని చెప్పవలెను. ‘He gone’ అనుట తప్పు : ‘He has gone ‘He went’ అని చెప్పవలెను.
7. 1) Each boy gets a different prize.
2) Every good boy_was rewarded..
Rules of sentence construction..
That form of a verb without which we cannot mak a sentence at all, is a finite verb. If there is only one verb word in a sentence, it is a finite; if there are two or more verb-words in a sentence, the first one alone is a finite and the others are not.

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Note:- Two nouns qualified by each or every though connected by and, require a singular verb.
1. Every Printer and every Publisher is required to submit the monthly return for the paper consumed by him.
2. Every Nation and every government is engaged in an economic war.
3. You may do the sum by either * method. There are trees on either side of the road. Either pen serves the purpose.
4. Neither ** answer is correct.
-పై వాక్యములలో each, eory, either, neither -అను adjectiveచే qualify చేయబడు boy, method, side, pen, answer అను నామవాచకములు ఏ పచనములో నున్నవి ? ఏకవచనములో నున్నవి. ఈ నామవాచకములు కర్తలుగా గల gets, was, rewarded, service, is అను క్రియలు ఏ వచనములో సున్నవి ? ఏకవచనములో నున్నవి.
-కాబట్టి each, every, either, neither చే qualify చేయబడు నామవాచకములును, ఈ నామవాచకములు కర్తలుగా గల క్రియలును ఏక వచనమనులో నుండవలెను.
8.1) Each of the boys gets a different prize.
2) (a) Either of the methods is good.
(b) Either of them has permission to go.
3) Neither of the answers is correct.
పై వాక్యములలో each, either, neither అను pronouns కర్తలుగా నున్నవి. వీని క్రియలు gets, is, has ఏ పచనములో నున్నవి ? ఏకవచనములో నున్నవి.
కాబట్టి each, either, neither అను pronouns గా ఉపయోగింపబడి కర్తలుగా నున్నపుడు వాని క్రియలు ఏకవచనములో నుండవలెను మరియు ఈ pronouns కు బదులుగా వచ్చు సర్వనామములు గూడ ఏకవచనములో మండవలెను. ఉ:-
Either – One of two things or each of two things (i.e. both) Not the one nor the other two things.
Each of th boys has brought his slate, Neither of them has a cap on his head.
Note: Distributive adjectives every pronounగా ఉపయోగించపబడదు.
9. ఒక వాక్యములో as well as లేక with రెండు కర్తలను కలుపునపుడు ”క్రియ’ మొదటి కర్తను అనుసరించియుండును, ఉ:- The king with his ministers was present. Silver as well as cotton has fallen in price.
10. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a plural verb, as :-
Gold and silver are precious metals. He and I were playing.
Note: If the nouns (a) suggest one idea to the mind or (b) refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular: as :-
(a) Time and tide waits for no man. Bread and butter is his only food.
(b) The novelist and poet is dead.
The novelist and the poet are dead. (Here the repetition of the article the,. indicates two different persons).
11. Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor take a singular verb, as :-
Either the father or the son has told a lie. Neither praise nor blame seems to affect him. Neither food nor shelter is to be found there.
Note:- But when one of the subjects joined by or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural and the plural subject must be placed nearest the verb as :-
Neither the king nor his ministers want war. Either Rama or his sons are to sign his letter.
12. When two subjects joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearer, as :-
Either he or I am mistaken. Neither you nor he is mistaken.
Note:- But it is better to avoid the above construction by writing as follows:
1. (a) He is mistaken, or else I am.
(b) You are not mistaken, nor is he.
2. (a) He is not to blame, nor am I.
(b) You are to pay the fine or else he is.
13. When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, the verb is generally singu- lar, as :-
Eighty thousand is a large sum.
Ten miles is a long distance.
14. A collective noun takes a singular verb. When the collection is thought of as one whole, (or thought as to make a unit a plural verb, when the individuals of the collection are thought of, as:-
The committee has submitted it report.
The committee are divided on one major point.
15. The rule of attraction. When the verb is so placed in the sentence as to be attached into the number and person of a noun or pronoun which is not the subject. (or have decided). e.g. (1) Each of (boys) as are willing to pay their own fares.
Note – The subject ‘each’ as 3rd person singular but the verb (are or have) is attracted to the number and person of the noun or pronoun immediately preceding as also the possessive adjective relating to each.
Ex. 40
(a) Correct the mistakes in:-
Rule 1: 1. I saw book on table. 2. Good boy minds his lesson. 3. I met lion in forest. 4. Tiger is beast of prey. 5. Mango is good fruit. 6. I saw man riding on horse. 7. Lion is wild animal. 8. Did you come in carriage. 9. There is boat under bridge. 10. Sun rises in east and sets in west. 11. Tree has fallen upon horse. 12. I saw boy in boat on river. 13. Carpenter made bench.

Rule 2: 1. The India is a very big country. 2. The Gopal went to see the Rama. 3. Last year I went to the Calcutta. 4. Last year I went to see the Bombay. 5. I live in the Kakinada. 6. The China is a fertile country. 7. The Europe is a civilised continent. 8. The Rama is a good boy.

Rule 3:- 1. You was in school yesterday. 2. The boy do not read his lesson. 3. I is a good boy. 4. Don’t he run fast? 5. He write very fast. 6. Your brother have not come. 7. On the table was two big books. 8. There is five fruits in the box. 9. The horse run fast. 10. The colour of apples are nice. 11. The number of soldiers were very great. 12. A bundle of sticks were brought. 13. A basket of flowers were sent to the king. 14. A good number of pupils has attended the private class.

Rule 4: 1. He walk slowly. 2. The cow eat grass. 3. The boy sit on the bench. 4. The moon rise in the east. 5. The boy not read well. 6. The pen do not write well. 7. The girl have no book. 8. The mother do not like the boy. 9. The horse draw the cart. 10. Do the cow eat grass?

Rule 5: 1. He has spoke to the teacher. 2. I have wrote the letter. 3. The girl have broke their slates. 4. The peon has took his pay. 5. Gopal has stole my book. 6. The peon has bring the letter. 7. He has went to Madras. 8. The axe had fell into the river. 9. He had began the work.

Rule 6: 1. He drunk the wine and fallen asleep. 2. The peon rung the bell. 3. He done the work well. 4. They going to school. 5. He run to the shop and began to buy many things. 6. The boys playing at school. 7. The men driving the sheep home. 8. The father taken the boy to school. 9. We writing a letter. 10. You telling lies.

Rule 7,8: 1. Each of the boys have taken their books. 2. Every man have brought their boxes. 3. Each of the soldiers were rewarded. 4. Every one of the letters were written by Gopal. 5. Let each boys use their own slates. 6. There are no lamps at either ends. 7. Either of the roads lead to the station. 8. Neither accusations are true. 9. Neither of them are a party to it. 10. India expects every man to do their duty. 11. Put lamps at either ends. 12. On either sides of the mountain are flower gardens. 13. Every employer and every employee are expected to work for the good of the concern. 14. Each man and women are to contribute to the war fund liberally.

Rule 9: 1. Sanskrit as well as Persian were taught there. 2. He with his children were among the first to arrive. 3. The house with its contents were insured. 4. My friends as well as I was deceived.

(b) Correct the mistakes in:-
1. Here comes the men.
2. The leaves of the tree is falling.
3. How do your new coat please you?
4. I was went to Madras a month ago.
5. You going to the college.
6. You was there yesterday.
7. He eating his food.
8. He din’t come home to-day.
9. The Scissors is sharp.
10. He used to wear a silk trousers.
11. His collection of birds are about the best.
12. We has attended the meeting.
13. Rama have no money.
14. The boy has return from Waltair.
15. The picture and the slate belongs to me.
16. Man’s happiness or misery depend upon himself.
17. The London is the biggst city in the world.
18. Not one of these five boys were present there.
19. Each of the boys wererewarded.20. Neither of the answers are right.
21. Post constables at either ends of the road.
22. I saw tiger jumping on cow.
23. A dog is the faithful animal.
24. Every one of the rules have to be obeyed.
25. The dog bite the thief.
26. The teacher expects every student to do their home work.
27. The ship with its crew were lost.
28. His father as well as his wife were dead.

Ans: 1. come 2. does 4. I went 5. are going 6. were 9. are 10. a pair of silk trousers. 11. is 12. have attended 13. has 14. has returned 16. depends 19. was rewarded 20. is 21. at their end. 23. The dog is a faithful animal. 26. to do his home work. 27. was lost 28. was dead.
(c) In each of the following sentences supply a Verb in agreement with the subject:-

1. To take pay and then not to do work-dishonest.
2. The cost of all essential goods- risen.
3. The jury-divided in their opinions.
4. The accountant and the cashier absconded.
5. The jury-unanimous in his verdict.
6. The good and useful citizen- passed away.
7. The famous juggler and the buffoon- laid up with fever.
8. The ebb and flow of the tide explained by Newton.
9. There – present Sri Ramaro, Sri Krishna and Sri Subbarao.
10. Hundred paise- euqal to one rupee.
11. Neither my friend nor I-to blame.
12. Either the clerk or the manager -done this mischief.
13. Neither the director of the Institute nor the research students – to take the credit for the invention.
14. My friend and benefactor – come.
15. Either Rama or you – guilty.
16. We are to answer for it, or else he-
17. Every boy and every girl-given a certificate of merit.
18. He is not to attend the meeting, nor-you.
19. Neither the captain nor the crew – saved. 20. No nook or corner – left unsearched.

Ans: 1. is 2. has 3. are 4. have 5. is 6. has 8. was 10. is 11. am 12. has 13. are 14. is (or has) 15. are 16. is 17. is 18. are 19. were 20. is.

Comprehension

COMPREHENSION(విషయ గ్రహణము) ఒక పరిచ్ఛేదము (passage), గద్య (prose) భాగము అయియుండవచ్చును లేక పద్య (poetry) భాగము అయి యుండవచ్చును. అది పరిచితమైనది (seen) గాని, అపరిచితమైనది (unseen) గాని అయి ఎండవచ్చును. అందలి భావమును అవగాహన (understand) చేసికొనుటయే విషయ గ్రహణము (Comprehension).

పరిచ్ఛేదమందలి విషయముపై (subject matter) చిన్న చిన్న ప్రశ్నలువేసి ఆ పరిచ్ఛేదము అవగాహన (comprehend) అయినది లేనిది పరీక్షింతురు. అందలి సారాంశమును (substanc) గ్రహించుటకును, దానిపై వేయబడిన ప్రశ్నలకు తగు సమాధానములు నిచ్చుటకును ఈ దిగువ సూచనలు (instructions) ఉపకరించును.

Note (i) ప్రశ్నలు వేయుటలోను, వానికా సమాధానముల నిచ్చుటలోను గల పారిభాషిక పద్ధతి (technique) తెలిసికొనుట మిగుల అవసరము .
Note (ii) ఆ పరిచ్ఛేదములోని ప్రతి పదముయొక్క గాని, ప్రతి వాక్యము యొక్క గాని, అర్థము మనకు తెలియనవసరము లేదు; ఏలన దాని సారాంశము తెలిసిన, గద్య పరిచ్ఛేదము యొక్క సంగ్రహము (precis) గాని పద్య పరిచ్ఛేదమునందలి కథాసంగ్రహము (substance) గాని దానిలోని విషయముపై వేయబడిన ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధనములుగాని వ్రాయ వీలగును.
సారంశము సాధించుటకు కొన్ని సూచనలు ఈ దిగువ నీయబడినది.

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

1. పరిచ్ఛేదమును అమూలాగ్రముగ జాగరూకతతో చదివి దానిని సాధ్యమైనంత వరకు బోధపరచుకొనవలయును. అవసరమును బట్టి దానిని రెండు లేక మూడుసార్లు చదివి, దానియొక్క విషయశీర్షికను (theme or title or heading of the passage) నిర్ణయింపనగును.
2. ఆ శీర్షిక తట్టనపుడు పరిచ్ఛేదముపై నియబడిన ప్రశ్నలు అందలి ముఖ్యాంశములపై సూటిగా (directly) ఆధారపడి యుండును. కనుక ఇచ్చిన ప్రశ్నలన్నిటిని ఒకమారు స్థూలముగ (cursorily) చదువ వలెను..

పిమ్మట ప్రశ్నలకును పరిచ్ఛేదమునకును గల ఉభయ సామాన్య పదములు లేక పద సముదాయములు (common words or phrases) గమనించిన ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానము, పరిచ్ఛేదములో ఎచ్చట నున్నది తెలియును.

ఇట్టి ఉభయ సామాన్యములు లేనపుడు ప్రశ్నయందలి ప్రధాన పదమును గుర్తించి దానిని గురించి యోచించిన ఆ ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానముగల ఒకటి రెండు వాక్యములు పరిచ్ఛేదములో కానవచ్చును.

ప్రశ్నయందలి ఇట్టి భావస్పోరకమగు ప్రధాన పదమును Key-word, Idea-word or Functional word అందురు. ఈ key-word ను శీర్షికతో సమన్వయ పఱచిన ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానము సుబోధకమగును.

అట్లు ఏ కారణము వలననైన సుబోధకము కానిచో, పరిచ్ఛేదము స్థూలముగా చదువగా తెలియవచ్చిన అభిప్రాయములతో ఈ key- word ను జతపరచిన (relate) ఆ ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానము బోధపడి తీరును.

ఇపుడు పరిచ్చేద శీర్షికను నిర్ణయించుట సులభసాధ్యము కావున ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానములు వ్రాయుటలో ఈ శీర్షిక (title) విలువ చెప్పనలవికాదు.
ఈ శీర్షిక కూర్చుటలో వార్తాపత్రికా సంపాదకుడు బహునిపుణత గలవాడై డును. ఈ శక్తి precis వ్రాయుటలో అలవడగలదు. ప్రతి ప్రశ్నకు పైపద్ధతి నవలంభించి సమాధానములు వ్రాయవలెను.

3. ప్రశ్నాక్రమమునకు (mode of the question) అనుగుణముగా సుండునట్లు జవాబును రూపొందించవలెను.

4. ప్రశ్నకు సరిపడు సమాధానమే వ్రాయవలెను. అవసరమగు దానికంటే ఎంతమాత్రము హెచ్చుగాని తగ్గుగాని లేకుండుట (the answer must be equivalent to or commensurate with the question)

ముఖ్యవషయము. అట్లుకానిచో, ఆ సమాధానము కొట్టివేయుటయో లేక మార్కులు బహుతగ్గించి యిచ్చుటయో జరుగును; ఏలన అట్టియెడల విద్యార్థి, ప్రశ్ననుగాని పరిచ్ఛేదమునుగాని రెండింటిని గాని అర్థము చేసికొనలేదని విశదము.

5. ప్రశ్నకు సమాధానము, పరిచ్చేదమునుండి తు.చ. తప్పకుండ (verbatim) ఎత్తి వ్రాయుట మంచిదికాదు. కాని అందలి పదములు, పద సముదాయములు ధారాళముగ వాడుకొనవచ్చును. వాక్యసరళి (sentence structure) మాత్రము వీలగునంతవరకు స్వంతముగానే యుండవలెను.

ఇందులకు Transformation of sentences లోని వివిధ పద్ధతులు ఉపకరించును.

6. (a) సమాధానములు సంపూర్ణవాక్యములై సులభ శైలిలో సూటిగా నుండవలెను. కోరినపుడు మాత్రమే జవాబును ఒకమాటగనో (word) నూటం — సముదాయము (phrase) గనో వ్రాయవచ్చును.

(b) ఖాళీలను (blanks) పూర్తిచేయవలసినపుడు వానిని పూర్తిచేసి, వాక్యమంతటిని తిరిగి వ్రాయవలెను.

(C) ఇచ్చిన అసంపూర్ణవాక్యములలోని ఖాళీలను మనకు ఇచ్చిన మాటతోనో, phrase తోనో లేక clause తోనో పూరింపవలసి యుండును. అట్టి తఱి మూడు నాలుగు జవాబులు వికల్పములు (alternatives) గా brackets లో ఈయబడును. అందొకటి మాత్రమే సరియై నది అయియుండును.

అట్టి దానిని ఎన్నుకొనుటలో అర్థసమన్వయమే ప్రధాన లక్ష్యము. సరియైన దానిని ఎన్నుకొనుటలో ఒక్కొక్కప్పుడు అర్థ సమన్వయములేని వికల్పములను విసర్జించు పద్ధతియు ఉపకరించును.

7. పెనుదహరించిన 2 మొదలు 6 వరకు గల సూచనలు ప్రశ్నలకు జవాబులు వ్రాయుటకు ఉపకరించును.

8. (a) ప్రశ్నలు పరిచ్ఛేదక్రమములో (sequence of passage) లేనపుడు, పరిచ్ఛేదము బాగుగా అర్థమైనగాని, సమాధానములు వ్రాయుట కష్టము.

(b) ప్రశ్నల నివ్వకమే గద్యపరిచ్ఛేదము యొక్క సంగ్రహమును (precis, summary,gist, abridgement, epitome or substanc) వ్రాయవచ్చును. లేదా ఒక పద్యము యొక్క కథా సంగ్రహమును (substance of story) వ్రాయమన వచ్చును.

Note: అట్టి సందర్భములలో ఈ క్రింది అనుబంధ సూచనలు (sup- plemental instructions) ఉపయోగించును.

అనుబంధ సూచనలు : (Supplemental instructions)
సామాన్యముగా పరిచ్ఛేదములోని ఒక వాక్యమునందలి కాని poem లోని stanza యందలి గాని రెండు మూడు key-words (such as the verb, the subject and the object) సహాయమున దాని యర్ధమును తెలిసికొనవచ్చును.

అట్లు కానిచో దాని పూర్వపద వాక్యముల లేక stanza ల యొక్క అర్ధమునుబట్టి వాని యర్థమును తీయవచ్చును. ఇట్లు రాబట్టిన అర్థమును శీర్షికతో సమన్వయించి (relate)’ సరి చూడవచ్చును.

Precis of a passage and Substance of a poem Precis గాని Substance or story of a poem గాని వ్రాయుటలో ఈ క్రింది సూచన గమనింపనగును.
Comprehension వలె పరిచ్చేదము యొక్క శీర్షికను (theme or heading) నిర్ణయించిన పిమ్మట దానికి దగ్గర సంబంధము గల పరిచ్ఛేదములోని భావములను margin లో గుర్తించి (tick off) వానిని వరుసగా అన్వయానుగుణముగా (in a connected manner) వ్రాయగా వచ్చునది గద్య రచనకు సంగ్రహము (precis) పద్యమునకు కథ (story) యు అగును.

Example Read this passage carefully and answer in complete sentences the questions given at the end: Before the days of motor-cars and buses, no one thought of the roads as specially dangerous places. People walked, or rode on horseback, or travelled in horse-drawn carts and carriages.

Nothing went at a greater speed than a bicycle; so, very few people got knocked down or hurt. But to-day the roads which are full of motor traffic, are the most dangerous places in the world.

Many thousands of people are killed on them every year, and thousands more are injured. Sad to say, among these are large numbers of children. Every year a thousand boys and girls are killed on the roads in England.

Two thirds of the number are under seven years of age. Of course everything possible is done to preveent accidents. Parents and teachers tell children about the dangers and warn them to be careful.

But little children easily forget what they are told and step off the pavement or start to cross the road without looking to see whether anything is coming. One of the best ways to prevent children from losing their lives in the streets is to help them to form certain habits. If day after day, they do the same thing in the same way, they at last do it as a habit.
Questions:

(1) Why were roads not dangrous before the days of motor-cars?
(2) How many children under seven years of age are killed every year on the roads of England?
Pavement = The path at the out-side of the road.
(3) How do older people try to prevent children being killed?
(4) Why do they not succeed in preventing accidents ? (5) How do children form habits?

1. పై పరిచ్ఛేదమును రెండు మూడుసార్లు చదివిన మీదట ఈ దిగువ మూడు అంశములు ముఖ్యముగా కానవచ్చును

1. Roads are the most dangerous places in the world. 2. Every year a thousand boys and girls are killed on the roads. 3. One of the best ways to prevent children from losing their lives is to help them to form certain habits.

2. వీని వలన గ్రహింపతగ్గ శీర్షిక ఏది? Prevention of road accidents to children ఈ శీర్షిక తట్టలేదనుకొందము. అపుడు ఇచ్చిన ప్రశ్నలు స్థూలముగా చదివిన, వీనికిని, పరిచ్చేదనకును గల common phrase లు మఱియు ప్రశ్నలోని keywords (or key phrases), మనకు శీర్షికను స్ఫురింపజేయును.

Note : అప్పటికిని శీర్షిక తట్టకపోయినను ఆధైర్యపడనవసరము లేదు.

3. ఇపుడు ప్రశ్నలు ఒక్కొక్కటి వరుసగా గమనింపవలయును.

Q.-1. Why were roads not dangerous before the days of motor-cars?
Common phrase: Roads not dangerous before the days of motor-cars.
కావున సమాధానము పరిచ్ఛేదములోని మొదటి ఆరు పంక్తులలోని ఈ దిగువదై యుండునని తెలియవచ్చును.

Ans: Before the days of motor-cars, people walked or rode on horse back or travelled in the horse-driven carts. Nothing went at a greater speed than the bicycle; so, very few people got hurt.

Q.-2. How many children under seven years of age are killed every year on the roads of England?

Common phrase: Large numbers of children under seven years of age killed on the roads in England every year.

కావున సమాధానము 11, 12, 13 పంక్తులలో ఈ దిగువదై యుండునని తోచును

Ans: Two thirds of a thousand children under seven years of age are killed every year on the roads in England.

Q.-3. How do older people try to prevent children being killed?

ఈ ప్రశ్న పై రెండింటికన్న కష్టము కాని common words: ‘prvent’ ‘tell’ వలన దాని సమాధానము 7, 9 పంక్తులలో నుండవచ్చునని. ఊహింపనగును. ఈ విషయమును శీర్షికతో సమన్వయించిన ఈ దిగువది సమాధానమని తేలును.

Ans: Parents and teachers tell children about the dangers of motor-traffic and warn them to be careful. Thus the older people try to prevent children being killed.

Q.-4. Why do they not succeed in preventing accidents? (a) భావానుక్రమణ (sequence of ideas) ను బట్టియు,

(b) శీర్షికను బట్టియు, ఈ దిగువ సమాధానమని తేలును :
Ans: Little children forget what they are told by the older people and start to cross the road without looking to see whether anything is coming.

Q.-5. How do children form habits?

(a) Common word: ‘habit’ (b) aron: 500 by సమాధానము చివరి పంక్తిలో నుండునని విశదమగుచున్నది.

Ans: If the children are helped to observe the traffic rules in the same way, day after day, they form correct habits. Precis (about 1/2 its size) Before the days of motor-cars people never travelled at a greater speed than a bicycle: so very few got hurt.

But to-day owing to motor-traffic, in England every year many thousands of people are killed, a thousand being children mostly under seven years of age.

Parents and teachers tell the children about the dangers, but they easily forget the warning and cross the road, without looking to see whether anything is coming. To prevent acci- dents, children must be helped to form certain habits. If daily they do the same thing in the same way, they at last do it as a habit.

Precis (about 1/3 its size) Before the days of motor-cars, very few people got hurt on roads. But to-day owing to motor-traffic, every year in England a thousand children mostly under seven years of age are killed.

Typical Exercise with Model Questions

Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
A hare once met a tortoise and was rude to him. She not only boasted of her own speed in running but made fun of the slow and clumsy way in which the tortoise moved.

“Slow as I am”, said the tortoise, “I am willing to run a race with you whenever you like.” “Very well”, replied the hare, “let us start now.”
So the race began. Away they both went, the hare bounding away at great speed, and the tortoise plodding along at a slow and steady pace.

When the hare reached the middle of the course, she resolved to take a nap, thinking that if the tortoise passed her, she could easily overtake him. But she overslept herself, and when she reached the goal, she found that the tortoise had got there before her.

Questions:

1. (1) Why did the tortoise offer, to run a race with the hare?
(2) If the hare and the tortoise had been equally wise, which would have won the race?
(3) How can you say that the hare knew of its superiority?
(4) Why was the hare defeated in spite of its greater speed?
(5) When did the tortoise pass the hare?
B. Supply the proper word (from those in brackets) which makes the best ending to the sentences below:
(1) The hare was too….. (swift, lazy, confident)
(2) Th tortoise won, because he was….. (slow, diligent, steady, silent)
(3) Slow and steady….. (pays, gains, wins) the race.

Note: The above questions can be seen to be sensible and purposive in as much as they require not only an intelligent understanding of the passage but provide a real test of the condidate’s capacity to frame correct sentences.

N.B. Now-a-days, below the passage set for compre- hension, are given three or four alternatives from which the correct answer is to be chosen.

Precis (about 1/2 its size)

Once a hare made fun of the slow movement of a tortoise. Stung by it, the latter, offerd to run a race with her. There upon the race began. Bounding speedily, the hare covered half the course much in advance. So she took a nap feeling confident of easily overtaking him, if he passed her. But the tortoise had reached the goal earlier, having plodded along slowly and steadily.

Exercise

Read the following passage carefully and (a) answer in com- plete sentences the questions given at the end, (b) write their precis reducing them each into (i) half their size, (ii) a third of their size:

1. Hercules saw the sea god, Nereus, sleeping on the sea shore. He woke up the sleeper with a shout, “Nereus, you who know everything, tell me the way to the garden of the He- sprites or I will fight with you and force out the information”.

At first Nereus would not listen to the request. So Hercules leaped upon him; the sea-god and the mighty hero wrested fiercely on the lovely sand. Nereus was no match in strength to young Hercules. So he tried to win by tricks. First he changed himself into a lion hoping to frighten Hercules. But the latter was not so easily discouraged.

Then Nereus turned into a big brown bear and after that into a tiny bird that was almost too small for the large fingers of Hercules to close upon. He changed into other shapes also a snake with shining, golden eyes and even a fly which for all its quickness and tiny size could not escape Hercules.

Nereus changed himself into fire and water next, and when these too failed to discourage Hercules, the sea-god gave up the struggle and taking his- usual shape of a small, greyhaired man, he gave Hercules the information he wanted.

Questions:

1. Where did the fight take place?
2. What was the information that Hercules wanted? 3. What was the fifth shape that Nereus put on, and what was his natural form?
4. Complete the following sentence by choosing one of the words within brackets:-
Nereus was not equal to Hercules in strength; so he tried to escape by using….. (force, bribery, cunning).
5. Complet the following sentence by using one of the clauses within brackets and write out the whole sentence. Nereus took differnt forms because…..
(he wanted to amuse Hercules; he did not like his original shape; he could live longer in those shapes; he wished to frighten Hercules).
2. “Listen, my friend,” said the wolf, ‘you need not be despondent, for I have a plan to help you.

Tomorrow early the master will go with his wife to the hayfield, and they will take the child with them and leave no one in the house. They generally put the child in the shade behind th hedge. You lie down beside it as if to guard it. I will come out of the wood and steal the child, and you must spring on me as if you wanted to hurt me away.

I will let the child fall out of my mouth and you must take it back to its parents who will be lieve you have saved its life; and will be so grateful to you that there is no fear of their allowing you to be hurt. On the country, they are certain to overwhelm you with kindness in future”.

The plan met the dog’s approval and was successfully carried out. The father screamed aloud when he saw his child in the wolf’s jaws; and when old Sultan brought it back, he was rejoiced, stroked the old dog and said, “No one shall touch a hair of your head, and you shall enjoy grace and bread till the end of your days.”

To his wife he said, “Go home and cook old Sultan a tasty hash that will be no trouble to bite, and take the pillow out of my bed, so that his resting place may be comfort-able”.

Questions:

(1.) How did the wolf encourage his friend?
(2) Where would the master go and what would he take?
(3) Where would they put the child?
(4) What should the dog do?
(5) Who would steal the child?
(6) What should the dog do then?
(7) What would the wolf then do?
(8) What should be done to the child?
(9) What would the parents believe?
(10) Would the dog be hurt?
(11) Was the plan carried out?
(12) What did the father do when he saw the child in the wolf’s jaws ?
(13) Who brought it back?
(14) Who rejoiced?
(15) What did the child’s father say to the dog?
(16) What did he say to his wife?

Make precis of the following reducing them to about a third of their length. A stout old lady was walking down the middle of a street in Moscow to the great confusion of the traffic and with no small peril to herself. It was pointed out to her that the pavement was the place of foot-passengers, but she replied:

“I am going to walk where I like. We’ve got liberty now. It did not occur to the dear old lady that if liberty entitled the foot- passengers to walk down the middle of the road, it also entitled the taxi-driver to drive on the pavement and that the end of such-liberty would be universal confusion. Everybody would be getting in everybody else’s way and nobody would get anywhere.

It is good to remind ourselves of what the rule of the road means. It means that in order that the liberties of all may be preserved, the liberties of everybody must be curtailed. When the policeman, say, at Abdi’s Corner, steps into the middle of the road and puts out his hand, he is a symbol not of tyranny, but of liberty.

You may not think so. You may being in a hurry and seeing your car pulled up, feel that your liberty has been outraged. How dare this fellow interfere with your free use of the public high-way? Then, if you are a reasonable person, you will reflect that if he did not incidentally, interfere with you, he would interfere with no one and the result would be that Abdi’s Corner would be a whirlpool that you would never cross at all. (M.P. & S.S.L.C. 1961) B

Three are also many discoveries of Science which have definitely brought unhappiness into the world. That is not because the discoveries are bad but because men are using them badly.

For example consider the discovery of gunpowder and of other explosives; each more powerful than the previous one discovered. In ancient times, men could wound and kill each other only if they were near enough to strike each other with stones, arrows, spears or swords.

Even in the battles of olden times which History calls ‘great battles’ the armies on both sides usually consisted only of a few thousand men; so the number wounded and killed in the wars of those times was not very great.

In most wars the peasants went on cultivating their fields peacefully, even when the armies were fighting a few miles away. But the invention of fire arms and high explosives caused a great change. A modern machine-gun, or quick-firing gun, worked by a single man, can wound and kill hundreds of people in a few minutes.

One modern bomb can kill thousands. It is said that the latest type of atomic bomb could kill hundreds of thousands of people immediately if it was dropped in the big city. The scientists who invented these terrible weapons are not wicked men who enjoy killing.

They are people with kind hearts, like yours and mine, but they are more clever and thy earn their living by discovering new things. It is the leaders of the various nations who kill the people of other nations.

The same discoveries could be used only for useful purposes, if the leaders did not allow them to be used for killing. It is not the discoveries and inventions that are bad but the ways in which men use them. (P.U.C. Sept. 1961)

Substance of a Story Poem

Read the following poem (1) Answer in complete sentences the questions given at the end. (2) Give the story contained in it:

George Naiver

1. Men have done brave deeds,
And bards have sung them well;
I of good Georg Naiver
Now the tale will tell.
2. In Californian mountains
A hunter bold was he,
Keen his eye and sure his aim
As any you should see.
3.A little Indian boy
Followed him everywhere
Eager to share the hunter’s joy
The hunter’s meal to share
4.And when the bird or deed
Fell by the hunter’s skill,
The boy was always near
To help with right good-will
5.One day, as through the cleft
Betwen two mountains steep,
Shut in both right and left,
Their weary way they keep.

6. They see two grizzly bears,
With hunger fierce and fell
Rush at them unawares
Right down the narrow dell.
7. The boy turned with screams,
And ran with terror wild;
One of the pair of savage beasts
Pursued the shrieking child.
8. He knew one charge was all
And through the boy’s pursuing foe
He sent his only ball.
9. The other on Georg Naiver
Came on with dreadful face;
The hunter stood unarmed,
And met him face to face.
10. I say unarmed he stood;
Against those frightful paws
The rifle butt, or club of wood,
Could stand no more than straws.

11. George Naiver stood still
And looked him in the face;
The wild beast stopped amazed,
Then came with slackening pace.
12. Still firm the hunter stood
Although his heart beat high,
Again the creature stopped;
And gazed with wondering eye.
13. The hunter met his gaze,
Not yet an inch gave;
The bear turned slowly round,
And slowly moved away.
14. What thoughts were in his mind
It would be hard to spell;
What thoughts were in George Naiver
I rather guess than tell.
15.But sure that rifle’s aim
Swift choice of generous part
Showed in its passing gleam
Th depths of a brave heart.

(a) Questions:

(1) Who was George Naiver? Who was his constant follower?
(2) How did the boy help Naiver ?
(3) What happened to them one day in the valley?
(4) How did Naiver save the Indian boy?
(5) Had he any more bullets to discharge when the other bear attackd him?
(6) What did he do then ?
(7) What effect had his fearless and steady look on the animal?
(8) What were his feelings when the animal went away?
(9) What do you think of Nadeer’s action ?

పద్య పరిచ్ఛేదములో ఈయబడిన ప్రశ్నలకు సమాధానములు వ్రాయుట, అందలి కథాసంగ్రహము తెలిసిన పిమ్మట అతి సులువు; కావున ఈ రెండింటికిని గూడ దిగువ సూచనలు ఈయబడినవి.

1. ఆ పరిచ్ఛేదము ఒకటి రెండుసార్లు మానసికమగ చదివిన అందలి కధాభాగములోని కొన్ని విషయములు పాడకట్టును. వాని సమన్వయము ఒక్కొక్కప్పుడు కానరాక పోవచ్చును.
2. అప్పుడు ఒక్కొక్క stanza యే తీసికొని అందలి ముఖ్యవిషయమును గ్రహించుటకు, మూడు నాలుగు మాటల అర్థములు తెలిసిన చాలు, మఱియు తఱచు, పంక్తులను గద్యరచన (prose) లోనికి మార్చిన అర్థమగును. ఇది చాల అవసరము.
3. Its Stanza Naiver’; 2nd stanza 6 bold hunter’; 3rd stanza everywhere”; 4th stanza 6 with right good-will’; 5th stanza way between two steep mountains’; 6th stanza two grizzly bears and with hunger they rush at them’; 7th stanza “The boy ran with terror, one of the beasts pursued the child’; 8th stanza 6 The hunter raids his gun and sent his only ball through the boy’s pursuing foe’; 9the stanza ‘The other came on George Naiver, the hunter stood unarmed and met him face to face’; 10th stanza 6 ‘He stood unarm against those frightful paws’; 11the stanza 5 The wild beast ‘Now I will tell the tale of good Gorge ‘In Californian mountains he was a ‘A little Indian boy followed him The boy was always near to help ‘They keep their weary They see stopped amazed and came with slackening pace’; 12th stanza Still the hunter stood firm and again the creature stopped’; 13the stanza “The bear turned round and moved slowly away’; 14th stanza 6 ‘It would be hard to tell what thoughts were in his (Nadeer’s) mind’; 15th stanza action showed the depths of a brave heart’. ‘His

Note : మఱియు 10 వ stanza లోని విషయమును పూర్తిగా వదలివేయవచ్చును. 11,12లు కూడ పాటించక పోయినను కధ అన్వయమునకు లోటురాదు.

5. పై దానిని బట్టి తెలియగా వచ్చిన కథాసంగ్రహము ఈ దిగువ యబడెను.

George Naiver was a bold hunter in Californian mountains. A little Indian boy followed him wherever he went and shared his joy and meal. When the hunter killed a bird or deer, the boy helped him.
On day they passed between two steep mountains.

Then they saw two bears, which were hungry and fierce. The beasts rushed at them. Thereupon the boy ran with wild terror, and one of the bears pursued him. At once the hunter raised his gun and sent his only ball through the bear that pursued the boy.

Soon the other bear came on George Naiver who stood unarmed, for he had no more balls to send. He therefore stood face to face with the bear. The bear first stopped but soon came nearer to him. Still the hunter stood firm but did not go back even an inch. Again the creature stopped, looked with wonder, slowly turned and moved away.

It is hard to tell the thoughts in Nadeer’s mind, but two things are clear; first he was noble, for he used his only ball to save the boy without any thought of saving his own life; secondly he had a brave heart.

Answers to Questions

(1) George Naiver was a bold hunter in Californian mountains. A little Indian boy was his constant follower.
(2) The boy followed him everywhere. When the hunter killed a bird or deer, he was always near to help him most heartily.
(3) In the valley, one day, two grizzly bears rushed at them unawares.
(4) The hunter sent his only ball through the bear that pursued the boy and thus saved him.
(5) Now he had no more bullets to discharge when the other bear attacked him.
(6) He stood firm and met him face to face and did not give way even an inch.
(7) The animal stopped amazed but soon came near. But again it stopped with wonder and slowly moved away.
(8) It is hard to tell Nadeer’s feelings, but he must have felt glad that he saved the boy.
(9) His action shows that he was brave and self-less.

Read the following poem

1) Answer in complete sentences the questions given at the end
2) Give the story contained in it: After Blenheim
It was a summer evening,
Old Kampar’s work was done, And he before his cottage door, Was sitting in the sun;
green And by him sported on the His little grandchild, Wilhelmina. She saw her brother Peterkin Roll something large and round Which he beside the rivulet
In playing there had found;
He came to ask what he had found
That was so large and smooth and round.
Old Kampar took it from the boy
Who stood expectant by;
And then the old man shook his head
And with a natural sigh,

“Tis some poor fellow’s skull”, said he “Who fell in the great victory”. “I find them in the garden, For there’s many here about; And often when I go to plough, The ploughshare turns them out! For many thousand men,” said he, “Were slain in that great victory”.

“Now tell us what ‘t was all about”, Young Peterkin, he cries; And little Wilhelmine looks up With wonder-waiting eyes; “Now tell us all about the war, And what they fought each other for”, “It was the English”, Kampar cried, “Who put the French to rout; “But what they fought each other for, I could not well make-out.

“But everybody said, “quota he, “That ‘t was a famous victory”.
My father lived at Blenheim then, You little stream hard by;
They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly;
So with his wife and child he fled,
Nor had he where to rest his head.
With fire and sword the country round
Was wasted far and wide
And many a childing mother then, And new-born baby died;
But things like that, you know, must be
At every famous victory.
“They say it was a shocking sight
After the field was won;
For many thousand bodies here Lay rotting in the sun;
But things like that, you know, must be After a famous victory.
“Great praise the Duke of Marlboro” won, And our good Prince Eugene. “Why, ‘t was a very wicked thing!” Said little Wilhelmine.
“Nay… nay… my little girl”, quoth he, “It was a famous victory”.
“And everybody praised the Duke Who this great fight did win”. “But what good came of it at last?” Quoth little Peterkin:
“Why, that I cannot tell”, said he, “But, ‘t was a famous victory”.
(Note: Blenheim = a village in Bavaria, where in 1740, the Duke of Marlborough and his ally, Prince Eugene defeated the French and the Bavarians. Ploughshare the cutting part of the plough. Where to rest his head = a shelter).

Questions:

1. Who was Caspar?
2. What was he doing one summer evening?
3. What was his grandchild Wilhelmine doing?
4. What did she see her brother, Peterkin, doing?
5. Where did be find it?
6. What did he ask his grandfather?
7. What was he old man’s reply ?
8. What did Peterkin ask him to tell him?
9. What did Kampar tell the children about the battle?
10. Did he tell the children why the battle was fought? Why?
11. How did he describe the effects of the battle?
12. What opinion did he give as regards the horrible sight?
13. What did the children think of the victory?
14. What did the old man say thereupon?
15. Which of the two was right? Why?

Writing the substance of a Reflective Poem and suggesting a title to it The following hints will be helpful:

(1) Read the passage silently and attentively at least two or three times, master the sense of the passage and then get at the central idea, which gives the clue to the title of the poem, which has to be supplied in case it is not given.
(2) Next express the thoughts directly related to the central idea in simple language, connectedly and briefly.
(3) For the sake of clearness :-
(a) the original has to be condensed, when it has repeti- tion or diffuseness or both.
(b) a little elaboration and elucidation are necessary when the original contains condensed thought, allusions or figurative language.
(c) the passa(w.ere necessary) is to be put in the prose order, removing inversions whether poetical rhetorical, and supplying all ellipses.
(d) proper quivalents in prose must be used in the case of
(a) archaic words (eg. thou art, brethren, saith, methinks, in sooth, quoth etc.,)
(b) words covered by poetic diction (eg. -lea, sere, grot, morn, ye, mead etc.,)
(c) highly poetic expressions (eg. the flower of light, the flower of chivalry, leafy luxury, branched thought, etc.,)

Example

Give the substance of the following poem and suggest a title to it:
“It is not growing like a tree
In bulk, doth Make Man better be;
Or standing long an oak, three hundred year,
To fall a log at last, dry, bald and sere?
A lily of a day
Is fairer far in May,
Although it fall and die that night; it was th plant and flower of Light. In small proportions we just beauties’ see;

But in short measures life may be perfect”.

(a)The main thoughts are
(a)The character of man is made better neither
(b)by growing in bulk nor living long.

The tiny lily is much more beautiful though it lives for a few hours. The nobility of man’s rapture is important but not his longevity. Hence “The noble nature” may be set down for the title. (ii) Meaning: A man’s character is not made better either by growing in size like an oak or by merely living for a number of years.

Thika tree grows to a huge size and lives for hundreds of years only to fall at length a bald, dry and withered log. Even so, one may live long, growing stronger in body, without becoming a whit better in character.

On the other hand a lily which lives hardly for a day in May is far more beautiful. By its radiant whiteness, lively freshness and small but perfect proportions, sheds fragrance and knowledge, beauty and joy,
on all around.

Just as true and real beauties may be seen in small objects, life may be perfect, though. simple and short-lived. Therefore what really makes man great is the practice of true nobility but not his longevity or high life or both.

Exercise

Give the substance of the following poems and suggest titles to them:
Happy the man, whose wish and care
A few paternal acres bound,
Content to breathe his native air
In his own ground.
Whose herds with milk, whose fields
with bread,
Whose flocks supply him with attire; Whose trees in summer yield him shade, In winter, fire.
Blest, who can unconcernedly find Hours, days and years slide swift away In health of body, peace of mind, Quiet by day.
Sound sleep by night; study and ease Together mixed; sweet recreation,
And innocence, which most does please With meditation.
Thus let me live, unseen, unknown; Thus unlamented let me die;
Steal from the world, and not a stone Tell where I lie.

As a fond mother, when the day is o’er, Leads by the hand her little child to bed, Half willing, half reluctant to be led, And leaves his broken playthings on the floor, Still gazing at them through the open door, Nor wholly reassured and comforted By promises of others in their stead, Which though more splendid may not please him more; So Nature deals with us, and takes away Our playthings one by one and by the hand Leads us to rest so gently, that we go, Scarce knowing if we wished to go or stay, Being too full of sleep to understand. How far the unknown transcends what we know.

Conditions and Suppositions

1. The ‘If, of Open condition (i.e. condition having no implication)
e.g.: (a) If I make a promise (=whenever I make a promise) I kept it.
(b) If I made a promise (-whenever I made a promise) I keep it.
(c) If you will lead, I will follow.
పై మూడు వాక్యములలోని If clause లలోని షరతులు conditions నెరవేరును అని గాని నెరవేరవు అనిగాని మాట్లాడు నతని సూచన లేదు; కాని ఆ షరతులు నెరవేరిన యెడల principal clause లలోని ఫలితములు విధిగా జరుగును.

‘If I make a prornise’ అను దానికి అర్ధము: “నేను వాగ్దానము చేయుట నిజమనిగాని, నిజముకాదని గానీ మాట్లాడు నతడు సూచించుట లేదు : ఇట్టి వానిని open conditional clauses అందురు.

Note: (1). (a) 6. fl-clause . principal clause కూడ simple present tense వాడబడినది. (b) లో If-clause లోను principal clause లోను కూడ simple past tense వాడబడినది. (C) లో If-clause 5% principal clause 6s వాడబడినది.

simple future tense

ఈ విషయములు పట్టి రూపమున క్రింద చూపబడినవి.

If-clause                                                                                Principal clause
(a) Simple present                                                                   Simple present
(b) Simple past                                                                        Simple past
(c) Simple future                                                                      Simple future

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Note: (2). In each of (a), (b), (c) the verbs in the Principal and Subordinate clauses are both indicative.

A few more examples:

(a) (a) If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there-Bible.
(b) If you have tears, prepare to shed them now… Shakespeare.
(c) If the ship leaves the Kakinada port at noon she passes by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3.30 p.m.
If he said so, he was wrong.
If you will be so kind as to help me, I shall be greatly obliged.
B. The ‘If of Probability (50)
e.g. If I make a promise, I shall keep it.

పై వాక్యములో If-clause లో simple present tense యును principal clause లో simple future tense యును వాడబడి యున్నవి. ఈ విషయమే పట్టి రూపమున క్రింద చూపబడెను.

If clause
Simple present
Principal clause Simple future.

Note :( (2) The verbs in the Principal and Subordinate clauses ae both Subjunctive.

A few more examples:

(a) If the patient wakes up, you will please give him coffee.
(b) If I meet him to-day, I shall recommend you to him.
(c) If the ship leaves the Kakinada port at noon she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3.30 p.m.

C. The ‘If of Certainty of a future act: e.g. If the ship is to leave the Kakinada port at noon (con- sidered future) she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3-30 p.m.

D. The ‘If’ of Chance of a future act: e.g. If the ship should leave the Kakinada port at noon (considered future) she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3-30 p.m.

E. The ‘If of Ignorance (on the part of the speaker) of the condition being a fact or not. e.g. If the ship is leaving now the Kakinada port, she will pass by the Vizag harbour between 3 and 3-30 p.m. N. B. For further information see ‘Conditional Tense’ on pages 119-121.

The Paragraph

A paragraph forms a distinct section of any piece of writing. A number of sentences make up a paragraph, and paragraphs make up a piece of composition. Each sentence deals with one thought, and each paragraph, an idea. Para-graphs are essential to divide a piece of prose into convenient units of thought so that the essay will have clearness.
A paragraph should have five qualities – Unity, Coherence, Balance, Variety arid Simplicity of style.
1. Unity: Every sentence in the paragraph must be closely connected with the central idea of the paragraph and they are therefore held together by the oneness of the purpose; and this is what is meant by Unity of a paragraph.
2. Coherence: Consists in the logical sequence of thought; this can be secured if the order of the sentences is such that the line of thought is continued from one sentence to the
next.
3. Balance: The ideas must be gradually developed avoiding repetition, but the main idea must on no account be obscured or weakenend, as the paragraph progresses. The space devoted to each sentence should be in proportion to the importance of the idea it expresses.
Note: The two most important sentences in the para- graph are the first and the last. The first should be a topical sentence (i,e. one stating the central idea of the paragraph). The sentences that follow should amplify the idea by way of elaboration or illustration. The last sentence should be an effective restatement of what is contained in the first sentence (i.c. the central idea) from a different standpoint or in another light or should be a sort of summing up of the details in the paragraph.
4. Variety: The sentences in a paragraph should differ from one another, both in the language and structure: some may be short and some, long. Brier sentences give clearness and force while long sentences give impressiveness and weight. Secondly, the paragraph may be a mixture of simple, complex and compound sentences.
5. Style: Should be simple and clear.

Read and Learn more English Grammar Topics

Note:-(1) The beginner would do well to attempt general- ally short paragraphs since they make for clearness and simplicty.
(2) The test of a good paragraph is that it should be capable of being easily summarised and expressed in a word or phrase.
The following is a perfectly constructed paragraph:
There is some truth in the common saying that while dogs become attached to persons, cats are generally attached to places. A dog will follow its master anywhere, but a cat keeps to the house it is used to. Even the house changes hands, the cat will remain there, so long as it is kindly treated by the new owner. A cat does not seem to be capable of devotion often shown by a dog. It thinks most of its own comfort, and its love is only cupboard love.
Note:- Let us study the construction of the above para-“graph.
The main idea (the difference in the attachment of dogs and cats) is set forth in the first sentence (topical sentence). The next two sentences affirm the truth of the saying under two strikingly different circumstances; so these two sentences may be said to amplify the main point. The fourth sentence fur- nishes the emotional cause, while the last gives selfishness as the reason for what is stated in the first. Thus the last sentence forms the emphatic restatement of the main idea in another light-
1. Hence the coherence of the paragraph.
2. The paragraph possesses unity, for every sentence in it is closely connected with the central idea.
3.!t has also variety in as much as it is a mixture of simple, complex and compound sentences; some short and some long.
4. Balance is secured by the gradual development of the idea, avoiding repetition.
5. Lastly, the style is simple, clear, and pleasing.
Note: The following paragraph is set as an exercise for the student to establish that it is perfectly constructed:
A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can converse with a picture and find an agreeable companion in a statue. He meets with a secret refreshment in a description and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows than another does in their possession. It gives him indeed a kind of property in everything he sees and makes the rude, uncultivated parts of nature administer to his pleasures, so that he looks upon the world, as it were, in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind- Addison (The spectator)
N.B.-It cannot be sufficiently emphasized that the teacher must give good practice to pupils in paragraph writing, given an idea; one must master the art of writing a good paragraph to be able to write an essay, worth the name. What is said of a paragraph applies to an essay; in short, a paragraph is an essay in miniature. Good practice in paragraph -writing can be given by setting exercises in Expansion of an idea

Expansion Of An Idea

An exercise in Expansion appers to be opposite in nature to an exercise in precis-writing. In the latter, one is required to omit unnecessary matter and put the important thoughts re- lated to the main idea cogently. In Expansion, one is asked to supply other related thoughts in a congent manner with a view to bringing out the full implication and significance of the idea.
An exercise in Expansion is a saying, a proverb, a maxim, an adage or a trite sentiment. The length of the expansion may be about fifteen lines.
The following should be noted when attempting an expansion:-
1. Think over and grasp the precise meaning of the statement; a mistake committed here renders the performance a failure.
2. Avoid beginning the Expansion with such phrase as: “The meaning of this proverb is, “The maxim teaches us”. etc.
3. Avoid using the pronouns “I” and “you”
4. Explain by paraphrasing.
5. Prove by reason or argument.
6. The expan- sion should read as a complete piece of composition.
7. If the passage for Expansion is a metaphor, expand it into a simile and explain. Its full meaning in plain language and give reasons to support it.
8. If the sentence for Expansion is a conclusion, the steps by which the conclusion has been arrived at, are to be traced.
9. Deal with the counter proposion and its denial.
10. Give, if possible, an illustration to bring out the force of the statement to be expanded.

1.No Man Is Completely Happy

Evils that beset life on earth are so \many and so varied that one’s happiness is dependent on conditions and factors beyond one’s control. The result is: it is impossible to attaincomplete happiness. Health of mind and body is an important condition of happiness. But ill health of mental suffering of both seem to be the common lot of man-kind. Again man’s happiness greatly depends upon those whom he has to deal with daily life. Plenty does not seem to solve the problem; for the more on has, the more one desires. Alexander who con- quered the then known world wept for more worlds to con- quer. True, whoever has no wants, has contenment which leads to complete happiness. Perfect contentment ever re- mains an ideal to be realised. The sentiment of compassion in man prevents him from being happy. Buddah who could not bear to see human suffering, renounced the world and preached the gospel of universal sympathy. So life is not an unmixed joy. It is well worth considering the effect of this on life. The attendent difficulties and sufferings in life are a blessing in disguise. They help make man grow morally and spiritually, in as much as they tend constantly to remind him of God, the giver of bliss. Hence Kunthi’s last prayer to Lord Krishna for troubles in life, so that she may always think of Him.

2. Oh! It Is An Excellent Thing To Have A Giant’s Strength, But It Is Tyrannous To Use It Like A Giant.

Life on earth is not an unmixed joy; even so, all things in life have two sides, the dark and the bright. The goodness or otherwise of a thing is not inherent in it. It depends upon the use we make of it. Let us take for example the knife. It is so useful that hardly a day passes without using it; but the same knife can be used to wound or even kill others. Hence the abuse (of a thing should not make us dispense with its use. There can possibly be no two opinions with regard to one having a giant’s strenghth, for that is useful not only to himself but to others. He can do most of his things himself but to others. He can do most of his things himself, defend himself against his enemies and protect the weak and the just against the oppressor and the tyrant. He could thus do yeoman service to society. But to use the giant’s strength for doing evil is to commit the worst crime on earth. we hear tales of giants especially in middle ages, of imprisoning, tormenting and killing people. In society we come across at least a few whose wickedness is comparable to Procrastenes. This proverb, should warn us against the abuse of our strength physical, materialistic, mental or spiritual.

3. Make Hay While The Sun Shines

The work of a farmer depends almost entirely on the weather which is an uncertain factor; and he has accordingly, to make the most of his opportunities. Hay-making requires bright sun shine. So the farmer has to be on the alert to get his hay in, while the weather is favoruable, lest it should be ruined by rain and mist. In an extended sense, the difficulties of the farmer are like the difficulties of all people, no matter what their walks of life (may be). Like the weather, life and health are uncertain; opportunities rarely occur and never repeat them- selves. When an opportunity offers itself, man must seize it and use it to the best advantage. Otherwise he gets ruined like the negligent farmer whose hay is destroyed by a change in wea- hetr. The man who takes things casy, postpones till tomorrow what he should do to-day, suffers heavily like the one who does not strike while the iron is hot. It is therefore necessary to make use of favourable opportunity. While we have health and the means, against a day when we may be deprived of one or the other, or both. “There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which taken at the flood, leads on to fortune, Omitted, all the voyage of their life, Is bound in shallows and in miseries”.

4. Make Hay While The Sun Shines

It is a matter of common knowledge that a stone that has been lying long in one place exposed to rain and sun, gathers moss, while a rolling stone gathers no moss. In the same way whoever works with steadiness and perseverance in one place is likely to gather experience and prosper, while one who getting easily discontented often moves from one place to an other or changes his occupation, stands to lose and proves a failure in life. In the first place he loses the friends, good name and influence he gained and deprives himself of the benefits of service and experience he put in; in the second place, he finds it an uphill task to esablish himself half so well in the new place or in the new employment. The maxim lays emphasis on the benefits of steadiness, patience and perseverance; it must not however be supposed that it entirely forbids change of place or calling under all circumstances. When one is sure that a change will be advatageous, it is worth effecting the change. There are instances to show that such changes enabled men to make their fortune.

5. Slow And Steady Wins The Race

One of the ironies of life is: all feel the wisdom of the above saying, know the definite advantages that result from following it, but fail to benefit by putting it into practice. This has universal application. It is also observed daily that people not following this, come to grief. Nevertheless, either through idleness, overconfidence, indifference or foolishness, this maxim is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. The bad effects of not practising it are markedly seen in the case of students who generally work only by fits and starts. Just before the examination, they find to their despair and bewilderment, that they can never cover the whole course and pass the examination. The following story illustrates the truth. Once a hare jeered a tortoise for its slowness, when the latter chal- lenged the former to a running race. Upon the hare accepting the challenge, without losing a moment the tortoise began run- ning the race slowly and steadily while through over-confi- dence in its superiority or contempt for the poor pace of the tortoise, the hare had a nap for sometime somewhere in the middle of the course. To its grief, it found that the tortoise had got to the winning post earlier.

6. Men’s Evil Manners Live In Brass, Their Vir- Tues We Write In Water

The idea contained in the above passage is reflected in the following lines: “The good that men do is often interred with them While the evil they do lives after them”. It is a matter of common experience that people often for-get the good done by men and more so the men who have done it. This is surely anomalous but seems to defy analysis. Their virtues are as momentary as the letters we write in water. The result is we fail to profit by their example. The authors of the good are soon forgotten. But inexplicably enough, people re- member their evil manners, as if they were engraved in brass, never to be erased. In their talk and social intercourse, people cite instances of Ravana’s evil rather than his superhuman qualities. The reasons are not far to seek; firstly, there is more evil than good in the world; secondly, people are indelibly affected by evil. Hence man’s evil behaviour persists, while his virtues become evanescent. To counteract this unfortunate tendecy in man, statues of great men are erected in prominent places; and public constructions and institutions are named after them. Great men and their noble actions are thereby sought to be enshrined in men’s hearts for their emulation, guidance and ennoblement.

7. Prosperity Brings Friends And Adversity Tries Them

Life around us bears withness to the truth of the adage set for expansion. Man is what is essentially a self-seeker. So people seeek the friendship of the prosperous, in self-interest. They get presents now and then, monetary help and a good many material benefits. Another motive behind this is a feeling of vanity to be seen in the company of the rich and the nobilty; this may incidentally benefit them. A type of this character is immortalised in Goldsmith’s Beau Tibbs. Such people court the favour of the wealthy for thaterial gains and desert them the moment they lose their riches. Not only does the true friend not desert his benefactor, but he stands by him through thick and thin. A friend in need is a friend indeed- Thus it is, that prosperity brings friends and adversity tries them. The courti- ers and the nobles that lived with the Senior Duke in the forest of Arden, denying themselves even the basic comforts of life, are shining examples of friends that stood the test of adversity. On the other hand the friends who had frequently visited Timon of Athens in his prosperity deserted him in his difficultties.

 8. One Man’s Food Is Another Man’s Poison.

What is good for one need not be good for another or may sometimes be injurious. The spirit of the saying is reflected in the line-As many men, so many minds. There is an infinite variety of man’s tastes in respect of choice of books, dress, sports, religion, and even the aim of life. The food and dress of Europeans won’t suit the people of eastern countries. The for- mer living in cold countries, require more stimulating food and warmer clothing. Milk which is considered an deal and com- plete food does not agree with the constitution of some. What is true of individuals is true of races and nations. Some Hindus I eat boiled pork, whereas the Muslims abhor it. The French man’s taste for frogs seems horrible to the Englishman. There is no disputing about tastes which are highly individualistic and varied. For the matter of that, every man has his own favourite fruit and drink. In proof of the truth of the saying may be cited the examples of the Roman Catholics and the Puritans in the matter of religous faiths; the Mammon worshipper and the aspirant for God’s grace, in respect of outlook on life. It is therefore best to judge whether a particular thing is suitable for us or not. Only when it does us god, we are to adopt it.

9. Strike While The Iron Is Hot.

Everything has to be done at the proper time. This maxim involves two factors choosing the most suitable time and acting promptly to win an advantage. While the iron is in the furnace, only when it is heated to a particualr temperature, it can be beaten into the required shape; the right moment is to be chosen to hammer the iron. In the same way, for raising good crops, sowing, planting and harvesting should be done at the right time; otherwise the crops fail. The stem of a plant can be bent in the way we want, only when it is tender but not after it grows into a tree. To implant ideas of right and wrong, to inculcate good behaviour and help form good habits in one, it is the business of the parent to choose as most suitable, one’s early life(i.e. childhood) which is the formative period of a person’s life.